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AP Unit 4
Chapters 21, 22, 26
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What are the kinds of blood vessels? | Arteries, Veins, Capillaries |
| What are the types of Arteries? | Elastic and Muscular |
| Where do arteries carry blood? | Away from the heart |
| What artery does not carry oxygenated blood? | Pulmonary artery |
| What vein does not carry deoxygenated blood? | Pulmonary vein |
| What can elastic arteries do? | Stretch and recoil |
| What is the blood vessel pathway? | Arteries-Arterioles-Capillaries-Venules-Veins-Heart |
| What do capillaries do? | Carry blood from the arterioles to the veins. |
| What are the types of capillaries? | True, Continuous, Fenestrated |
| What do precapillary sphincters do? | Close off capillary bed to go straight to venule. 'Sympathetic Fight or Flight' |
| What are the three layers of the arteries? (From outer to inner layer) | Tunica adventitia or externa, tunica media, tunica intima. |
| What is the Tunica Adventitia made of? | White fibrous tissue |
| What is the Tunica Media made of? | Smooth muscle, elastic and fibrous tissue. |
| What is the Tunica Intima made of? | Endothelium-simple squamous epithelium |
| What layers do the veins have? | Same three as arteries (adventitia or externa, media, intima), but thinner and fewer elastic fibers |
| What layers do the capillaries have? | Tunica Intima |
| What kind of circulation do humans have? | Closed Circuit |
| What are the types of circulation? | Systemic and Pulmonary |
| What is systemic circulation? | blood flow in this path: left ventricle-aorta-all body-right atrium |
| What is pulmonary circulation? | Blood flow in this path: right ventricle-pulmonary artery-lungs-pulmonary veins-left atrium |
| What is the primary determinant of arterial pressure? | Volume of blood in arteries |
| What are two important factors that determine the volume of blood in the arteries? | Cardia Output and Peripheral Resistance |
| What effect does less volume have in regard to arterial pressure? | Less Volume=Less Pressure |
| What effect does less cardiac output have in regard to arterial pressure? | Less CO = Less Volume = Less Pressure |
| What determines Cardiac output? | Stroke Volume and Heart Rate (SV*HR=CO) |
| What determines peripheral resistance? | Blood Viscosity and Arteriole Diameter |
| What determines blood viscosity? | concentration of blood proteins and blood cells |
| What effect does a low blood viscosity have in regards to peripheral resistance? | Low blood viscosity = low peripheral resistance |
| What effect does a constricted artery have in regards to peripheral resistance? | Constricted Artery = Smaller Artery = Higher peripheral resistance |
| What is capillary exchange? | -Movement of water and dissolved substances, (except proteins) through capillary walls -Mostly by diffusion -Dependent upon several opposing forces or pressure |
| What is hydrostatic pressure? | Pressure of water in fluids |
| What are the types of hydrostatic pressure? | Blood Hydrostatic Pressure (BHP) and Interstitial Fluid Hydrostatic Pressure (IFHP) |
| What is Blood Hydrostatic Pressure (BHP)? | Water pressure that moves fluid out of capillaries into interstitial fluid (pressure on arterial end is greater than on venuole end) |
| What is Interstitial Fluid Hydrostatic Pressure (IFHP)? | Water pressure that moves fluid out of interstitial fluid into capillaries (Pressure same on both ends) |
| What is osmotic pressure? | Pressure due to the presence of nondiffusible proteins in blood and interstitial fluid |
| What are the types of osmotic pressure? | Blood Colloid Osmotic Pressure (BCOP) and Interstitial Fluid Osmotic Pressure (IFOP) |
| What is Blood Colloid Osmotic Pressure (BCOP)? | Osmotic pressure that moves fluid from interstitial spaces into capillaries (pressure same at both ends) |
| What is Interstitial Fluid Osmotic Pressure (IFOP)? | Osmotic pressure that move fluid out of capillaries into interstitial fluid (pressure same at both ends) |
| What is another name for Net Filtration Pressure (NFP)? | Effective Filtration Pressure (Peff) |
| What is Net Filtration Pressure? | The sum of all pressure acting on capillaries |
| What is the NFP equation? | NFP=(BHP+IFOP)-(IFHP+BCOP) |
| What is Starling's Law of Capillaries? | equilibrium between fluid out and fluid in with lymphatics |
| What are two factors affecting venous return to the heart? | respirations and skeletal muscle contractions |
| What is blood pressure measure with? | sphygmomanometer |
| What is the normal range for blood pressure? | Systolic:120-140mmHG; Diastolic:80-90mmHg |
| Why does arterial blleding come out in spurts? | Becasue of pressure difference in diastole and systole |
| Why is venous bleeding slow and steady? | because of low, pratically constant venous pressure |
| What is the classificatioin for hypertension according to blood pressure measurements? | Systolic Pressure>140; Diastolic Pressure>90 |
| What is the velocity of blood? | the speed with which blood flows |
| Where is velocity of blood the fastest? | Arteries |
| Where is velocity of blood the slowest? | Capillaries |
| What is a pulse? | alternate expansion and recoil of artery |
| What causes a pulse? | intermittent ejections of blood |
| Why can a pulse be felt? | because of elasticity of artery walls |
| What is a pulse wave? | pulse starts at beginning of aorta and proceeds as wave of expansion throughout arteries |
| Where can pulse be felt? | radial, temporal, carotid, facial, brachial, femoral, popliteal, and pedal |
| What is venous pulse? | found in large veins only; caused by changes in venous pressure brought about by alternate contraction and relation of atria |
| What are four differences in fetal and normal circulation? | 1)umbilical vein brings in oxygenated blood from mom; 2)shunt through the liver; 3)hole between right and left atrium; 4)connection between pumonary artery to aorta |
| In the fetus, what is the shunt through the liver called? | ductus venosus |
| In the fetus, what is the hole between the right and left atrium called? | foramen ovale |
| In the fetus, what is the connection between the pulmonary artery and the aorta called? | ductus arteriosus |
| What is the lymphatic system not? | a circulatory system |
| What does the lymphatic system consist of? | lymph, interstitial fluid, lymphatics, lymph nodes, idolated nodules of lyphatic tissue, tonsils, thymus, and spleen |
| What is lymph? | clear, watery fluid found in lyphatic vessels; plasma portion of blood without the plasma proteins |
| What is interstitial fluid? | complex and 'organized' material that fills spaces between cells |
| What is extracellular fluid made of? | Interstitial Fluid and blood |
| In what location is the lymph twice as high? | Thoracic Duct |
| What are two main lymphatic ducts? | thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct |
| Where does the thoracic duct drain in to? | left subclavian vein |
| Where does the right lymphatic duct drain in to? | righ subclavin vein |
| What are lacteals? | lymphatics origination in intestinal villi; after a fatty meal they contain milky lymph called chyle |
| How do lymphatic vessels compare to veins structurally? | thinner walls and more valves |
| What are three functions of the lymphatic vessels? | 1)drain interstitial fluid; 2)transport dietary lipids; 3)facilitate immune responses |
| How do lymphatic vessels drain interstitial fluid? | return water and proteins from IF to blood |
| How do lymphatic vessels transport dietary lipids? | lacteals absorb fats and other nutrients |
| How do lymphatic vessels facilitate immune responses? | because of the materials they're carrying |
| What is the circulation rate of lymph? | 125 mL/hour |
| What are mechanisms that contribute to the 'lymphatic pump'? | breathing movements, skeletal muscle contractions, arterial pulsations, contraction of lymphatic vessels (minimal, barely contract) |
| What is the structure of the lymph nodes? | made of lymphatic tissue seperated into compartments by fibrous partitions |
| What enter and exit the lymph nodes? | Afferent lymphatics enter the nodes and efferent lymphatics exit the nodes |
| How are lymph nodes arranged? | In clusters |
| What is the function of lymph nodes? | filter out injurous substances and phagocytose them; site of formation of lymphocytes and monocytes |
| Where is the thymus located? | in the mediastinum |
| What is the size of the thymus? | largest at age 12, after which it gradually decreases in size; almost disappears by advanced old age |
| What is the function of the thymus? | produces and distributes T cells |
| Where is the spleen located? | left hypochondriac |
| What is the structure of the spleen? | ovid in shape; size varies; contains numeroud venous blood spaces |
| What are the functions of the spleen? | defense; hemopoiesis of monocytes and lymphocytes; rbc and platelet destruction; blood reservoir |
| How does the spleen provide defense? | protection by phagocytosis and antibody formation |
| What are the types of tonsils? | pharyngeal (adenoid), palatine, and lingual |
| Where are the pharyngeal tonsils located? | posterior wall of nasopharynx |
| Where are the palatine tonsils located? | tonsilar fossa between arches (ones that are removed) |
| Where are the lingual tonsils located? | base of tongue |
| What do the tonsils do? | act on foreign substances that are inhaled or ingested |
| What is resistance? | ability to ward off disease |
| What is susceptibility? | vulnerability or lack of resistance |
| What are the two types of resistance? | Nonspecific resistance, and specific resistance |
| What is nonspecific resistance? | inherited, provides general response to wide variety of organisms |
| What is specific resistance? | specific antibody to fight specific pathogens; developed, not inherited |
| What are the mechanisms of nonspecific resistance? | skin and mucous membranes, phagocytosis, interferon, antimicrobial substances, and inflammation |
| What does the skin do in regard to nonspecific resistance? | wards off entrance of a number of pathogens |
| What does the mucus membrane do to defend body? | traps microbes and foreign substances; may be aided by cilia |
| What function does the lacrimal appartus have in defending the body? | washing action of tears helps keep microbes from settling on eyes |
| How does the flow of urine defend the body? | keeps microbes from expanding in urinary tract |
| How does saliva defend the body? | washes microbes from teeth |
| What are some mechanical factors of nonspecific resistance? | skin, mucus membrane, lacrimal apparatus, saliva, and urine flow |
| What are some chemical factors of nonspecific resistance? | Sebum, sudoriferous glands, and gastric juice |
| How does sebum help to defend the body? | forms a protective layer over surface of skin; inhibits growth of some pathogenic bacteria and fungi |
| What do the suderiferous glands do to help defend the body? | wash microorganism from surface of skin' contains lysozyme which breaks down cell walls of some bacteria |
| How does gastric juice defend the body? | high acidity destroys bacteria in stomach |
| What are the kinds of phagocytes? | Granulocytes and macrophages |
| Which granulocytes are the main ones used when defending the body? | neutrophils |
| What do macrophages do? | some wander; others remain in certain tissues; eat up bacteria |
| What are the steps of phagocytosis? | chemotaxis, adherence, ingestion, digestion |
| What happens in the stage of chemotaxis? | phagocytes are attracted to microorganisms by chemicals |
| What happens in the adherence stage? | attachment of cell membrane of phagocyte to surface of microogransim; involves opsonization to enhance attachment of phagocyte |
| What is opsonization? | coating of microorganism with plasma proteins |
| What happens in the ingestion stage of phagocytosis? | involves pseudopod extensions by phagocyte forming phagocytic vesicle |
| What happens in the digestion stage of phagocytosis? | fusion of phagocytic vessicles with lysosome; enzymes of lysosome destroys bacteria |
| What is interferon? | an antimicrobial substance |
| What are the types of interferon? | alpha, beta, and gamma |
| What are the alpha, beta, and gamma types of interferon produced by? | lymphocytes, macrophages, and fibroblasts |
| What does interferon do? | induces uninfected cells to inhibit viral replication; may enhance cell-killing activity; suppress tumor formation |
| What is a complement system? | group of 20 proteins found in blood serum |
| What are the functions of a complement system? | some cause cytolysis; release histamine; attract phagocytes with chemotactic agents; bind to surface of microbe |
| What is a natural killer cell? | population of lymphocytes with ability to kill wide variety of microbes plus some tumor cells |
| Where are natural killer cells found? | lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow, and blood |
| What is inflammation? | localized response of cells damaged by microbes, physical agents, or chemical agents |
| What are the 4 cardinal symptoms of inflammation? | redness, pain, heat, and swelling; (fifth sign could be loss of function in injured area) |
| What are the steps involved in inflammatory response? | vasodialation and increased permeability; phagocyte migration; repair |
| What is involved in the inflammation stage of vasodialation and increased permeability? | arterioles enlarge and become leaky resulting in heat, redness, and edema; several chemicals are released from cells |
| What happens in the inflammation stage of phagocyte migration | neutrophils exhibit margination and diapedesis to enter injured area for phagocytic activity; neutrophils are followed by monocytes |
| What is an antigen? | any chemcial substance that, when introduced to the body, CAUSES THE BODY TO PRODUCE SPECIFIC ANTIBODIES AND/OR SPECIFIC T CELLS WHICH CAN REACT WITH THE ANTIGEN |
| What are properties of antigens? | immunogenicity, reactivity |
| What is immunogenicity? | ability to provoke an immune response |
| What is reactivity? | ability of antigen to react with produced antibodies or cells |
| What are some characteristics of antigens? | most formed of protein or large polysaccharide, entire microbe or part of microbe may be antigenetic, contains antigenetic determinant sites on its surface, determinant site that has reactivity but not immunogenicity is called a partial antigen or hapten |
| What is Major Histocompatibility complex? | glycoprotein that mark the surface of all body cells |
| What is the major role of MHC? | help T cells recognize foreign antigens |
| What structure does not have MHC on its surface? | red blood cells |
| When is MHC used? | when determining organ donors |
| What are antibodies? | proteins produced by body inresponse to presence of antigen and capable of combining specifically with the antigen |
| What group of proteins do antibodies belong to? | immunoglobulins |
| What are the five classes of immunoglobulins? | IgM, IgA, IgD, IgG, IgE |
| What is the structure of antibodies? | two heavy chains (>400 amino acids), two light chains (>200 amino acids) |
| What holds each half of an antibody together? | Disulfide bonds |
| What holds heavy and light chains together? | disulfide bonds |
| What are the two regions of antibodies? | Variable portion and constant portion |
| What does the variable portion of an antibody contain? | antigen binding site |
| What is unique about the constant portion of an antibody? | it is the same for all members of a class |
| What are the two types of Immunity? | cellular and humoral |
| What is another name for cellular immunity? | cell-mediated immunity |
| What is cell-mediated immunity effective against? | fungi, parasites, intracellular viral infections, cancer cells, and foreign tissue transplants |
| What are the general steps in the process of cell-mediated immunity? | 1)recognition of antigen 2)proliferation and differentiation into effector cells 3) elimination of intruder |
| What is CD4+ called? | the helper |
| What is CD8+ called? | cytotoxic |
| First 3 steps of cellular immunity | 1)MHC molecules are recognized by T cell receptors 2)growth factors are produced 3)lymphokines are interleukin-1 and interferons that stimulate T cell growth |
| Last 3 steps of cellular immunity | 4)T cells become sensitized, increasing in size, differentiating, and dividing, clones 5)helper T cells aid in antibody production and secrete interleukin-2 6)cytotoxic T cells destroy invading cell |
| What does interleukin-2 do? | stimulates production of cytotoxic T cells |
| What are the 4 types of clones produced in cellular immunity? | 1)helper T cells 2)cytoxic T cells 3)suppressor T cells 4)memory T cells |
| How do cytotoxic T cells destroy invading cells? | 1)leave lymphoid tissue and travel to site of invasion 2)attach to invading cell and destroy it 3)release several chemicals |
| What do suppressor T cells do? | shut down some activities of immune system after several weeks so that body is not attacking itself |
| What do memory T cells do? | recognize the original incading antigen; initiate swifter reacion on second exposure; (only feel a little crummy, not full blown sick) |
| What is another name for humoral immunity? | antibody-mediated immunity |
| What is humoral immunity effective against? | bacterial and viral infections |
| What are the first 3 steps of humoral immunity? | 1)antigen binds to antibodies on B cells; antigen is then processed and presented 2)presented antigen are recognized by helper T cells 3)some B cells enlarge and divide into clone of plasma cells which secrete antibody |
| How fast do plasma cells secrete antibodies in humoral immunity? | 2000molecules/second for several days |
| What are the last 2 steps of humoral immunity? | 4)remaining B cells remain as memory B cells which respond in the future 5)antibodies produced by B cells enter circulation and form antigen-antibody complexes |
| What is passive immunity? | immunity where antibodies are used but not produced |
| What is an example of passive immunity? | children under the age of 6 months have their mothers' antibodies which they can use for immunity but are not making themselves |
| What are the four organs of the urinary system? | kidneys, bladder, ureters, uretha |
| Where are the kidneys located? | posterior abdominal wall behind peritoneum |
| What is the hilum? | concave notch on medial surface of kidney |
| Where does the renal artery/vein enter/exit the kidney? | hilum |
| What are the kidneys covered in? | white fibrous capsule |
| What are the three layers making up the capsule of the kidney? (from inside out) | renal capsule, adipose capsule, renal fascia |
| What is the outer layer of the kidney called? | cortex |
| what is the inner portion of the kidney called? | medulla |
| What are renal pyramids? | triangular wedges of medulla |
| What are the apices of the renal pyramids called? | papillae |
| What are renal columns? | extensions of cortex between pyramids |
| What are the six vessels that supply blood to the kidneys? | renal arteries, segmental arteries, interlobar arteries, arcuate, interlobular arteries, and afferent arterioles |
| Where do the renal arteries lead to? | kidneys |
| What are the segmental arteries? | division of the renal artery |
| What are the interlobar arteries? | arteries between the renal pyramids of the kidneys |
| What is the arcuate? | artery found at junction of medulla and cortex in kidney |
| What is the interlobular artery? | perpendicular branches of arcuate artery |
| What are afferent arterioles? | arterioles that lead to glomerulus; bigger than efferent arteriole |
| What is the nephron? | the functional unit of the kidney |
| What is included in the vascular portion of the nephron? | glomerulus, afferent arteriole, efferent arteriole, and peritubular capillaries |
| What is the glomerulus? | tuft of capillaries lying inside Bowman's Capsule |
| What is the peritubular capillary? | capillaries surrounding renal tubules |
| How many nephrons are there in a kidney? | 1 million |
| What is included in the tubular portion of the nephron? | Bowman's Capsule, and renal tubules |
| What is the Bowman's Capsule? | cup-shaped mouth of nephron |
| What are the layers of the bowman's capsule? | visceral and parietal |
| Where is the parietal layer of bowman's capsule located and what is it made of? | makes up the outer layer of bowman's capsule; made of simple, squamous epithelium |
| what is the visceral layer of bowman's capsule made of? | podocytes, pedicels, and filtration slits |
| What is the glomerular-capsule membrane? | constituted of visceral layer, basement membrane, and endothelium of glomerulus |
| What are the four renal tubules of the nephron? | proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convolutingtubule, and collecting tubule |
| What are the functions of the nephron? | excrete urine, influence ADH and aldosterone secretion, synthesize erythropoietin and prostaglandins, influence bp |
| What are the three steps in the formation of urine? | 1)Filtration 2)Reabsorbtion 3)Secretion |
| What is GBHP? | forces fluid out of glomerulus and into Bowman's capsule (55mmHg) |
| What is CHP? | forces fluid into glomerulus (15mmHg) |
| What is BCOP? | forces fluid into glomerulus (30mmHg) |
| What is the Peff of nephron filtration? | BHP-(CHP+BCOP)=10mmHg |
| What happens in the filtration step of urine formation? | water and solutes out of glomerular blood through glomerular-capsular membrane into Bowman's capsule |
| What happens in the reabsorbtion step of urine formation? | most of waqter and part of solutes from tubule filtrate into peritubular blood |
| What do the proximal tubules of the nephron do in order to aid in reabsorbtion? | osmosis of water out of proximal tubule; major portion of water and electrolytes and all glucose and nutrients are reabsorned from proximal tubule |
| What does the loop of Henle (in the nephron) do in order to aid in reabsorbtion? | serves as a countercurrent mechanism; condition essential to formation of either a concentrated or dilute urine |
| How do the distal tubules aid in reabsorption in presence of ADH? | permeable to water, permitting osmosis of water out of distal tubules and collecting ducts |
| What do distal tubules form in the presence of ADH? | concentrated urine |
| How do distal tubules aid in reabsorption in the absence of ADH? | almost completely impermeable to water so water not reabsorbed |
| What do distal tubules form in the absence of ADH? | diluted urine |
| What do distal tubules secrete? | potassium, hydrogen, and ammonium ions |
| What factors regulate urine volume? | ADH, corticoids (especially aldosterone), rate of filtration from glomeruli |
| What is the rate of filtration from glomeruli? | 125mL/min |
| What are the physical characteristics of urine? | transparent or clear, amber or straw colored, three pints produced a day |
| What does darker urine mean? | Concentrated urine |
| What does lighter urine mean? | Dilute urine |
| What is the chemical composition of urine? | 95% water with: wastes from protein metabolism, electrolytes, toxins, pigments, sex hormones, and sometime abnormal constituents |
| What are some abnormal constituents found in urine? | albumin, glucose, blood, casts, and calculi |
| What is glycosuria? | sugar/glucose in the urine |
| What is hematuria? | blood in the urine |
| What is pyuria? | pus in the urine |
| What is dysuria? | difficult urination, pain with urination |
| What is polyuria? | excess urination |
| What is oliguria? | few urinations |
| What is anuria? | no urine; Peff=0 |
| Where are the ureters located? | Extend from kidneys to posterior part of bladder floor |
| What are the characteristics of ureters? | expands as they enter kidneys, becoming renal pelvis, subdivided into calyces, which contain renal papilla |
| What are the ureters made of? | walls of smooth muscle with mucous lining and fibrous outer coat |
| What is the function of the ureters? | to collect urine and drain it into the bladder |
| What is the bladder? | collapsible bag of smooth muscle lined with mucosa; contains 3 openings |
| What are the 3 openings of the bladder? | one into uretha, two into ureters |
| What are the functions of the bladder? | reservoir for urine, expels urine from body by way of urine |
| What are three words for expel urine from the bladder? | micturition, urination, or voiding |
| What is retention? | inability to expel urine from bladder |
| What is suppression? | failureof kidneys to form urine |
| What is the uretha? | musculomembranous tube lined with mucosa |
| What is the urinary meatus? | opening to exterior from uretha |
| What are the functions of the uretha for a male? | passageway for expulsion of urine and semen |
| What are the functions of the uretha for a female? | passageway for expulsion of urine |
Created by:
Hannah Marler
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