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Hormones and T. Reg.
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| The cells of multicellular animals exist within an _____________________ of extracellular fluid. | internal environment |
| ECF stands for ______________________________. | extracellular fluid |
| ________________________ is the extracellular fluid that is not contained in the vessels of the circulatory system and bathes every cell of the body. | Interstitial fluid |
| ________________ is the fluid that is pumped around the body; a component of the circulatory system. | Blood plasma |
| Individual cells get their nutrients from and deposit their waste into the ____________________. | interstitial fluid |
| Cells are protected from changes or harsh conditions in the external environment as long as_______________________________________________________. | conditions in the internal environment are held within certain limits |
| A stable internal environment makes it possible for an animal to do what? | Occupy habitats that would kill its cells directly if they were exposed to it directly. |
| As multicellular organisms evolved, cells became ______________________________________. | specialized for maintaining specific aspects of the internal environment. |
| Cells that evolved to be the interface between the internal and external environments also do what? | Provide the necessary transport functions to get nutrients in and move wastes out. |
| Some cells became specialized to provide internal functions. Those functions include: | circulation of the extracellular fluids, energy storage, movement, and information processing. |
| What did the evolution of physiological systems to maintain the internal environment make possible for multicellular animals? | To become larger, thicker, and more complex, as well as to occupy many different kinds of habitats. |
| The external environment and metabolic activity of the cells of the body constantly challenge ________________________. | the composition of the internal environment |
| The maintenance of stable conditions (within a narrow range) in the internal environment. | Homeostasis |
| The activities of all physiological systems are controlled--sped up or slowed down--by actions of the __________ and ___________ systems. | nervous, endocrine |
| In a regulatory system, the threshold sensitivity to the feedback stimulus. | Set point |
| In regulatory systems, information about the relationship between the set point of the system and its current state. | Feedback information |
| In regulatory systems, any difference between the set point of the system and its current condition. Suggest corrective actions. | Error signal |
| Components of physiological systems that effect changes in the internal environment. | Effectors |
| Systems whose activities are controlled by commands from regulatory systems (i.e. effectors) | Controlled systems |
| A system that uses feedback information to maintain a physiological function or parameter at an optimal level. Obtains, processes, and integrates information to then issue commands to control systems. | Regulatory system |
| A cell that is responsive to a particular type of physical or chemical stimulation. | Sensor/sensory receptor cell |
| In regulatory systems, information that decreases a regulatory response, returning the system to a set point. Used to counteract the influence that created an error signal. | Negative feedback |
| In regulatory systems, information that amplifies a regulatory response, increasing the deviation of the system from the set point. Tend to reach a limit and terminate rapidly. | Positive feedback |
| In regulatory systems, information that changes the set point of the system. Predicts a change in the internal environment before that change actually occurs. | Feedforward information |
| Each physiological system is composed of ________, which are in turn made up of _________, which are made up of _______. | organs, tissues, cells |
| A body part composed of different tissues integrated to perform a distinct function. Can be integrated into systems. | Organ |
| A group of similar cells organized into a functional unit; usually integrated with other tissues to form part of an organ. | Tissue |
| What are the four kinds of tissues? | Epithelial, muscle, connective, and nervous |
| Made up of sheets of a certain kind of cells that are densely packed and tightly connected. | Epithelial tissue |
| Create boundaries between the inside and the outside of the body and between body compartments; line the blood vessels and make up various ducts and tubules. | Epithelial cells |
| What are the functions of epithelial cells? | They act as barriers and transport across those barriers. They control what molecules and ions can move between the blood and interstitial fluid. They can selectively transport ions and molecules from one side of an epithelial membrane to the other |
| What are other roles that epithelial cells perform? | Secretion of hormones, milk, mucus, digestive enzymes, sweat. Movement of substances over surfaces or through tubes with the use of cilia. Can also provide information to the nervous system as smell and taste receptors. |
| Made up of elongated cells that contract to generate forces and cause movement. Most abundant tissues in the body and use most of the energy produced. | Muscle tissue |
| Type of cell that contains long protein polymers called actin and myosin which interact to cause muscle cells to contract and exert force. | Muscle cells |
| A protein that makes up the cytoskeletal microfilaments in eukaryotic cells and is one of two contractile proteins in muscle. | Actin |
| One of the two contractile proteins in muscle. | Myosin |
| Types of muscle tissues: | Skeletal, cardiac, smooth |
| A type of muscle tissue characterized by multinucleated cells containing highly ordered arrangements of actin and myosin microfilaments. Under both voluntary and involuntary control. Also called striated muscle. In charge of locomotion and body movements. | Skeletal muscle |
| A type of muscle tissue restricted to the heart and assisting in its function. Under involuntary control. Responsible for beating of the heart and pumping of blood. | Cardiac muscle |
| Muscle tissue consisting of sheets of mononucleated cells innervated by the autonomic nervous system. Responsible for involuntary generation of forces in many hollow internal organs (i.e. bladder) | Smooth muscle |
| A type of tissue that connects or surrounds other tissues; its cells are embedded in a collagen-containing matrix. | Connective |
| Component of extracellular matrix of connective tissues: | Protein fibers |
| Dominant protein in the extracellular matrix connective tissue cells. Strong and resistant to stretch, giving strength to the skin and to the connections between bones and bones and muscle. Fibers provide a netlike framework for organs. | Collagen |
| A type of protein fiber in the extracellular matrix of connective tissues. Can be stretched to several times its resting length and then recoil. Are most abundant in tissues that are regularly stretched (i.e. walls of the lungs, large arteries). | Elastin |
| Types of connective tissues: | Cartilage, bone, adipose/fat, blood |
| What is the extracellular matrix of cartilage made out of? | A network of collagen fibers embedded in a flexible matrix consisting of a protein-carbohydrate complex, along with a specific type of cell called a chondrocyte |
| Lines the joints of vertebrates and is resistant to compressive forces. Since it is flexible, provides structural support for flexible structures such as ears and noses. | Cartilage |
| Its extracellular matrix also contains collagen fibers, but it is hardened by the deposition of calcium phosphate. | Bone |
| A connective tissue that stores lipids and serves as a major source of energy. Cushions organs and, when layered under the skin, can provide a barrier to heat loss. | Adipose/fat |
| A connective tissue consisting of cells in an extensive liquid extracellular matrix. | Blood |
| Tissue specialized for processing and communicating information; one of the four major tissue types in multicellular animals. | Nervous |
| The two basic cell types of nervous tissues: | Neurons, glial |
| Cells that come in many shapes and sizes and can encode information as electrical signals that can travel over axons to communicate with other neurons, muscle cells, or secretory cells through the release of chemicals called neurotransmitters. | Neurons |
| The part of a neuron that conducts action potentials away from the cell body. | Axon |
| A substance produced in and released by a neuron that diffuses across a synapse and excites or inhibits another cell. | Neurotransmitter |
| A specialized type of junction where a neuron meets its target cell. | Synapse |
| Do not generate or conduct electrical signals, but provide a variety of supporting functions for neurons. More of these types of cells than neurons. | Glial |
| Chemical signals that are released into the blood by certain types of cells that influence the activities of other cells at a distance. | Hormones |
| An impulse in a neuron taking the form of a wave of depolarization or hyperpolarization. | Action potential |
| Cells that secrete chemical signals. | Endocrine |
| A cell with the appropriate receptors to bind and respond to a particular hormone or other chemical mediator. | Target cell |
| Pertaining to a chemical signal, such as a hormone, that acts locally, near the site of its secretion due to it being released in small quantities or rapidly inactivated by enzymes. | Paracrine |
| A chemical signal that binds to and affects the cell that makes it. | Autocrine |
| Hormones and paracrines can have ____________ functions as a means of providing negative feedback to control their rates of secretion. | autocrine |
| Some endocrine cells exist as single cells within _________ | a tissue |
| An aggregation of secretory cells that secrete hormones into the blood. | Endocrine gland |
| Any gland that secretes to the outside of the body or into the gut (i.e. sweat glands, salivary glands). | Exocrine gland |
| A chemical substance used in communication between organisms of the same species. | Pheromone |
| A chemical signal produced and released by neurons that subsequently acts as a hormone. | Neurohoromone |
| A hormone released by the anterior pituitary gland, one of whose functions is the stimulation of milk production in female mammals. | Prolactin |
| What are the three groups of hormones? | Peptides/proteins, steroids, amines |
| Hormones that are water-soluble and thus easily transported in the blood without carrier molecules. Packaged in vesicles within the cells that make them; released by exocytosis. Their receptors are on cells surfaces. | Peptides/proteins |
| Hormones that are synthesized from the steroid cholesterol, are lipid-soluble, and easily pass through cell membranes. Diffuse out of the cells that make them and are usually bound to carrier molecules in the blood. Their receptors mostly intracellular. | Steroids |
| Hormones that are mostly synthesized from the amino acid tyrosine. Some are water-soluble, others are lipid-soluble. Modes of release differ. | Amines |
| Water-soluble hormones cannot pass readily through plasma membranes, so their receptors are located _______________________________. | on the surface of target cells |
| Receptors of water-soluble hormones are large transmembrane ________________________________. | glycoprotein complexes with three domains: binding, transmembrane, cytoplasmic |
| Lipid-soluble hormones can diffuse through plasma membranes, and therefore their receptors _________________________________. | are usually inside cells, in either the cytoplasm or the nucleus |
| The nature of the response depends on the responding cells and its receptors. Thus, _________________________________. | the same hormone can cause different responses in different types of cells |
| The "fight-or-flight" hormone produced by the medulla of the adrenal gland; it also functions as a neurotransmitter. Also called adrenaline. Causes the heart to beat faster and stronger and constricts blood vessels. Diverts more blood to muscles. | Epinephrine |
| When it binds to the liver and to receptors on fat cells, stimulates the breakdown of fats to yield fatty acids--a source of energy. | Epinephrine |
| Releases melatonin from between the two hemispheres of the brain. | Pineal gland |
| Regulates biological rhythms. | Melatonin |
| Releases thyroxine (T3 and T4) and calcitonin. | Thyroid gland |
| An amine hormone, begins as the glycoprotein thyroglobulin. The more active hormone in the cells of the body. Regulates cell metabolism. | Thyroxine (T3) |
| An amine hormone, begins as the glycoprotein thyroglobulin. Can be converted into its counterpart by an enzyme. Regulates cell metabolism. | Thyroxine (T4) |
| Hormone that stimulates incorporation of calcium into bone. | Calcitonin |
| Situated on the posterior surface of the thyroid, releases the parathyroid hormone (PTH). | Parathyroid gland |
| Hormone that stimulates release of calcium from bone and absorption of calcium by gut and kidney. | Parathyroid hormone (PTH) |
| A small gland attached to the base of the brain in vertebrates. Its hormones control the activities of other glands. | Pituitary gland |
| Releases the antidiuretic hormone and the hormone oxytocin, packaged in vesicles that are transported down axons that extend from neurons in the hypothalamus. | Posterior pituitary |
| A hormone that promotes water reabsorption by the kidney. Produced by the neurons in the hypothalamus and released from nerve terminals in the posterior pituitary. Released when blood pressure falls or blood becomes too salty. | Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) |
| When ADH secretion is high, the kidneys produce | only a small volume of highly concentrated urine and causes the constriction of peripheral blood vessels. |
| A hormone released by the posterior pituitary that promotes social binding. Can also stimulate milk production in females. | Oxytocin |
| When a woman is about to give birth, the hormone oxytocin ______________________________. | stimulates the uterine contractions that deliver the baby |
| Part of the pituitary gland that releases the tropic hormones (thyrotropin, luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, corticotropin), the growth hormone, prolactin, melanocyte-stimulating hormone, enkephalins, and endorphins. | Anterior pituitary |
| Hormones that produced by the anterior pituitary that control the secretion of hormones by other endocrine glands. | Tropic hormones |
| A hormone that acts on a wide variety of tissues to promote growth. Stimulates cells to take up amino acids. Promotes growth by stimulating the liver to produce chemical signals called somatomedins or insulin-like growth factors grow bone and cartilage. | Growth hormone |
| Overproduction of growth hormone in children causes ______________. | Gigantism |
| Underproduction of growth hormone in children causes ________________. | Pituitary dwarfism |
| The body's natural painkillers. Molecules in the mammalian brain that act as neurotransmitters in pathways that control pain. | Endorphins, enkephalins |
| A tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary hormone that stimulates cortisol release from the adrenal cortex. Also called adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ATCH). | Corticotropin |
| A peptide hormone released by the anterior pituitary that stimulates many anabolic processes. | Growth hormone |
| A hormone produced by the anterior pituitary that stimulates the thyroid gland to produce and release thyroxine. Also called thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). | Thyrotropin |
| In animals, the outer tissue of certain organs such as the adrenal gland and the brain. | Cortex |
| In contrast to the posterior pituitary, the anterior pituitary makes and secretes its own hormones, but ________________________________________. | its secretion of hormones is under the control of neurohormones from the hypothalamus. |
| The pituitary gland is located within the __________________. | hypothalamus |
| The part of the brain lying below the thalamus; it coordinates water balance, reproduction, temperature regulation, and metabolism. | Hypothalamus |
| If the connection between the hypothalamus and pituitary gland is experimentally cut, ___________________________________________. | the release of pituitary hormones no longer changes when conditions in the internal or external environment change |
| The posterior pituitary develops from neural tissue whereas the anterior pituitary develops from _____ tissue. | gut |
| Blood vessels that begin and end in capillary beds. | Portal blood vessels |
| A special set of ____________________ bridges the gap between the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary | portal blood vessels |
| A hormone produced by the hypothalamus that stimulates the anterior pituitary to release thyrotropin. | Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) |
| A hormone produced by the hypothalamus that stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete gonadotropins. | Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GRH) |
| A tropic hormone that controls the activities of the gonads. | Gonadotropin |
| An organ that produces gametes in animals: either an ovary or testis. | Gonad |
| The endocrine cells of the anterior pituitary are also under direct and indirect ___________ feedback control by the hormones of the target glands they stimulate. | negative |
| The ____________ wraps around the front of the windpipe (trachea) and expands into a lobe on either side. Epithelial cells that make up follicles produce, store, and release thyroxine. Calcitonin is produced between cell spaces. | thyroid gland |
| Thyroxine begins as the glycoprotein ________________ which the follicle cells synthesize as long chains consisting largely of tyrosine residues which are iodinated and cleaved to form smaller molecules consisting of only two tyrosine residues(thyroxine). | thryoglobulin |
| If the smaller molecules of cleaved thyroglobulin are iodinated at the max of four sites on the tyrosine residues, the hormone is ____________________________. | tetraiodothyronine (T4) |
| If the smaller molecules of cleaved thyroglobulin are iodinated at the max of three sites on the tyrosine residues, the hormone is ____________________________. | triiodothyronine (T3) |
| The thyroid usually releases _____ times as much T4 as T3. | four |
| The receptor for thyroxine is found in most cell bodies and when combined with thyroxine ___________________________________________ whose products are enzymes involved in energy metabolic pathways, transport proteins, and structural proteins. | it acts as a transcription factor that stimulates the transcription of numerous genes |
| Thyroxine elevates the metabolic rates of most _____ and ______. | cells, tissues |
| Exposure to cold for several days leads to an increased release of thyroxine, an increased conversion of T4 to T3, and therefore ___________________________. | an increased basal metabolic rate |
| The minimum rate of energy turnover in an awake (but resting) bird or mammal that is not expending energy for thermoregulation. | Basal metabolic rate |
| Thyroxine is especially crucial during development and growth, as it promotes ______________ and _______________ | amino acid uptake, protein synthesis |
| Retarded physical and mental development resulting from insufficient thyroxine during fetal growth. | Cretinism |
| An enlarged thyroid gland that can be associated with hyperthyroidism (excess thyroxine) or hypothyroidism (thyroxine deficiency). | Goiter |
| Most common cause of hyperthyroid goiter is: | an autoimmune disease involving an antibody to the TSH receptor |
| People with hyperthyroidism have: | high metabolic rates, are jumpy and nervous, usually feel hot, and may develop a buildup of fat behind their eyeballs which causes them to bulge |
| Most common cause of hypothyroid goiter is: | a deficiency of dietary iodine, without which the follicles cannot make thyroxine |
| Symptoms of hypothyroidism include: | low metabolism, intolerance of cold, and general physical and mental sluggishness |
| When blood calcium levels fall below normal range, the nervous system ________________________. | becomes overly excited, resulting in muscle spasms and even seizures |
| When blood calcium levels rise above normal range, the nervous system _________________________________________. | becomes depressed and muscles, including the heart, weaken |
| Blood calcium levels can be changed by: | deposition or absorption of bone, excretion or retention of calcium by the kidneys, absorption of calcium from the digestive tract |
| Calcitonin, released by the thyroid, __________ calcium in the blood, mainly by regulating bone turnover. | reduces |
| Calcitonin decreases the activity of ____________ and thereby favors removal of calcium from the blood and its deposition into bone by _______________. | osteoclasts, osteoblasts |
| A cell that dissolves bone. | Osteoclast |
| A cell that lays down the protein of matrix of bone. | Osteoblast |
| Calcitonin is more important in ______________ whose bones are actively growing. | young individuals |
| Four glands on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland that produce and release parathyroid hormone (PTH). | Parathyroid glands |
| A hormone secreted by the parathyroid glands that stimulates osteoclast activity and raises blood calcium levels. Also called parathormone. | Parathyroid hormone (PTH) |
| Parathyroid hormone (PTH) stimulates bone turnover by actions on both osteoclasts and osteoblasts. The end result of the actions of PTH result in ________________________. | a net increase of calcium in the blood |
| Parathyroid hormone (PTH) also raises blood calcium levels by stimulating the _________ to reabsorb it rather than excrete it in urine. | kidneys |
| Parathyroid hormone (PTH) also activates the synthesis of __________ from vitamin ____, which in turn causes the digestive tract to increase its absorption of calcium from food. | calcitrol, D |
| Vitamin D is synthesized in _____ cells, where ___________ is converted into vitamin D, also called ___________, by ultraviolet light. Vitamin D circulates in the blood and acts on distant cells; thus it is actually a hormone. | skin, cholesterol, calciferol |
| When parathyroid hormone (PTH) stimulates the release of calcium from bone, it also causes the release of _____________. | phosphate |
| To reduce the risk of increased phosphate levels, parathyroid hormone (PTH) acts on the __________ to increase the ________________________________. | kidneys, elimination of phosphate via urine |
| A gland located near the stomach of vertebrates that secretes digestive enzymes into the small intestine and releases insulin into the bloodstream. | Pancreas |
| A hormone synthesized in islet cells of the pancreas that promotes the conversion of glucose into the storage material glycogen. | Insulin |
| Caused by a lack of insulin or insulin responsiveness in target tissues. | Diabetes |
| The glucose transporters that are most common in muscle and fat tissue are controlled by _________. | insulin |
| In the absence of insulin or insulin responsiveness, __________________________________. | glucose entry into cells are impaired and glucose accumulates into the blood |
| Clusters of hormone-producing cells (i.e. insulin) in the pancreas. | Islets of Langerhans |
| Type of cell that produces and secretes insulin. | Beta |
| Type of cell that produces and secretes glucagon. | Alpha |
| Type of cell that produces a hormone called somatostatin. | Delta |
| A hormone that stimulates the liver to break down glycogen and release glucose into the circulation. | Glucagon |
| The rest of the pancreas is made up of _________ tissue which produces enzymes and other secretions through ducts into the gut. | exocrine |
| An endocrine gland located near the kidneys of vertebrates, consisting of two glandular parts, the cortex and medulla. | Adrenal gland |
| The inner, core region of an organ, as in the adrenal gland or kidneys. | Medulla |
| The adrenal medulla produces two hormones: ______________ and ________________ in response to stressful situations. | epinephrine, norepinephrine |
| A neurotransmitter found in the central nervous system and also at the postganglionic nerve endings of the sympathetic nervous system. Also called noradrenaline. | Norepinephrine |
| The medulla develops from _________ tissue and is under the control of the ___________ system. | neural, nervous |
| Surrounding the medulla is the adrenal ________, which produces steroid hormones. | cortex |
| The adrenal cortex is under _________ control, largely by corticotropin produced by the anterior pituitary. | hormonal |
| Epinephrine and norepinephrine are both ______-soluble, and both bind to the same set of receptors on the surface of target cells. | water |
| The receptors of epinephrine and norepinephrine are called: | adrenergic receptors |
| The two types of adrenergic receptors are: ______ and ______ adrenergic receptors. | alpha, beta |
| The alpha-adrenergic receptors are the most common on target cells of the _______________ nervous system and respond more strongly to norepinephrine than epinephreine. The beta receptors respond equally. | sympathetic |
| One class of the beta-adrenergic receptors are found on cells not innervated by the sympathetic fibers, so they are positioned to respond to circulating _______________. | epinephrine |
| Drugs called beta blockers can reduce the fight-or-flight response to ______________ without disrupting the physiological regulatory functions of _________________. | epinephrine, norepinephrine |
| The three classes of steroid hormones, collectively called corticosteroids, are: | glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, sex steroids |
| The steroid hormone class that influences blood glucose concentrations as well as other aspects of fat, protein, and carbohydrate metabolism. | Glucocorticoids |
| The steroid hormone class that influences the salt and water balance of the extracellular fluid. | Mineralocorticoids |
| The steroid hormone class that plays roles in sexual development, sexual behavior, and anabolism. | Sex steroids |
| The process of synthetic reactions linking simple molecules to form even more complex ones | Anabolism |
| The main mineralocorticoid--stimulates the kidneys to conserve sodium and excrete potassium. | Aldosterone |
| The main glucocorticoid--crucial for mediating the body's metabolic responses to stress. Decreases the use of blood glucose by unneeded cells and has them use fats and proteins for energy instead. Also blocks immune system reactions. | Cortisol |
| Cortisol release is controlled from the anterior pituitary by the hormone _______________ also called adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH). | Corticotropin |
| Male steroids are collectively called: | androgens |
| Female steroids are collectively called: | estrogens and progesterone |
| The dominant androgen is: | testosterone |
| The dominant estrogen is: | estradiol |
| Estradiol is synthesized from ________________. | testosterone |
| The enzyme __________ converts estradiol to testosterone. | aromatase |
| The presence of a Y chromosome normally causes the undifferentiated embryonic gonads to begin producing ____________ in the seventh week of development. | androgens |
| Sex steroids are produced in low levels by juvenile gonads until the _________________________. | beginning of puberty |
| A type of trophic hormone that stimulates the gonads. | Gonadotropin |
| A gonadotropin produced by the anterior pituitary that stimulates the gonads to produce sex hormones. Increases the synthesis of testosterone. | Luteinizing hormone (LH) |
| A gonadotropin produced by the anterior pituitary. In males stimulates the production of sperm. | Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) |
| The hormone produced by the hypothalamus that stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete gonadotropins. | Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) |
| Puberty is initiated by a reduction in the sensitivity of __________________________________________. | GnRH-producing cells to negative feedback from sex steroids and from gonadotropin. |
| In females, increasing levels of LH and FSH at puberty stimulate the _________ to increase their production of the female sex hormones. | ovaries |
| In males, an increasing level of LH stimulates groups of cells in the _________ to increase their synthesis of testosterone. | testes |
| Testosterone also helps _____ and _____________ grow. | bones, skeletal muscles |
| Melatonin is produced from the amino acid: | tryptophan |
| The pineal gland releases melatonin in the dark and therefore _________________________________. Exposure to light inhibits the release of melatonin. | marks the length of night |
| The phenomenon whereby seasonal changes in day length causes physiological changes. | Photoperiodicity |
| A negative feedback process in which continuous high concentrations of a hormone can decrease the number of its receptors (i.e. diabetes mellitus). | Downregulation |
| A process by which the abundance of receptors for a hormone increases when hormone secretion is suppressed (beta blockers). | Upregulation |
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