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Exam 3 Ch28,29,34,35
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What do all plants have? | Chloroplasts |
| What do land plants and green algae have in common? | They contain chlorophyll a and b, starch storage, and cellulose in cell walls. |
| What is another name for land plants? | Embryophytes |
| What is the synapomorphy of land plants? | Development from an embryo protected by tissues of the parent plant |
| Describe nonvascular land plants. | They are small. They include liverworts, mosses, and hornworts. They do not form a clade. They have a thin cuticle and must live in a moist environment. No conduction so water moves through capillary action. Minerals are distrubuted by diffusion. |
| Describe vascular plants. | They have tracheophytes from roots to tip. They can be huge. They have conducting cells called tracheids. They form a clade and are monophyletic. They include club mosses, ferns, conifers, and angiosperms. They have xylem, phloem, independent sporophyte. |
| What are the characteristics of lands plants and their features? | They have a cuticle (waxy cover to protect from loss of water), stomata (except in liverworts; guard cells that conserve water), gametangia to enclose gametes (protect sperm and egg), embryos in a protected structure, protective pigments (protect from UV) |
| Characteristics continued... | spore walls (sporopollen), and relationships with fungus (help give plants nutrients from dry soil). |
| What are the steps of Alternation of Generations? | 1) Multicellular diploid plant = sporophyte = "spore plant" 2) Cells in sporangia undergo meiosis to produce haploid spores 3) spores develop into multicellular haploid plant = gametophye = gamete plant 4) Gametophytes produce haploid gametes (sperm/egg) |
| Alternation of Generations continued... | 5) Fusion of gametes = zygote 6) Zygote forms into sporophyte. |
| What are the differences between animal lifecycles and plant lifecycles? | Animals remain in the diploid state for most of their lives, while plants alternate equally. Plants are more complex. Plants have gametophyte stage and sporophyte stage. |
| Explain the trend toward reduction in gametophytes. | At the beginning of time, the first angiosperms had many stamins. As they became more derived, they became more specialized and had few stamin. In land plants, the haploid gametophyte is reduced and the diploid sporophyte is increased. |
| What is antheridium? | Male, produces many sperm |
| What is archegonium? | Female, produces one egg |
| What is the function of xylem? | To carry water and minerals from soil. |
| What is the function of phloem? | To carry products of photosynthesis like sugars and carbohydrates. |
| What are tracheids? | They are a cell type in xylem that transports and supports. |
| What does homosporous mean? | One type of spore, spores produce one type of gametophyte (has archegonium and antheridium). An example is moss. |
| What does heterosporous mean? | Two types of spores. Megaspore and microspore are present. |
| What does megaspore develop into? | Female gametophyte - the megagametophye, which produces only eggs. |
| What does microspore develop into? | Male gametophyte - the microgametophyte, which produces only sperm. |
| Describe Liverworts. | 9,000 species phylum heptaphyta. Some have leafy gametophytes, some thalloid. Sporophytes very short. Can reproduce asexually too - fragmentation or by gemmae. Things you see are the gametophyte. |
| Describe Mosses. | 15,000 species phylum bryophyta. Stomata (with hornworts and vascular) is where spore first terminates. Protonema = gameotophytes start as branched filamentous structures. Rhizoids = anchor (fake roots). Some gametophytes too large and produce hydroids. |
| What is Sphagnum? | A genus of moss. It forms peat which is very acidic. Can preserve bodies. |
| Describe Hornworts. | 100 species phylum anthocerophyta. Gametophytes are flat plates of cells. Cells have a single, large chloroplast. Sporophyte isn't on a stalk and can grow 20cm. The internal cavities are for cyanobacteria. |
| Describe Lycophytes. | They include club mosses, spike mosses, and quillworts. 1200 species. Roots branch dichotomously. Leaves have microphylls. Some have sporangia arranged in clusters called strobili. Others have it on top of leaves called sporophylls. |
| Describe Horsetails. | 15 species phylum equisetum. Silica in cell walls make the leaves sharp. They have true roots. Sporangia on short stalks called sporangiophore. Reduced megaphylls in leaves. Chlorophyll is in the stem. |
| What does monilophytes include? | Horsetailes, whisk ferns, and other ferns. Unresolved relationship. |
| Why is it important to be diploid? | It reduces mutations. Extra set of chromosomes provide protection. |
| Describe Whisk Ferns. | 15 species, 2 genera. They don't have roots, but have a well-developed vascular system. Psilotum has scales instead of leaves. Tmesipteris has megaphylls and are flattened. |
| Describe Leptosporangiate Ferns. | 12,000 species. Sporangia walls are one cell thick, borne on stalk. They have true roots, stems, leaves. Leaf starts out as coiled fiddlehead. Water required for swimming sperm. Sporangia occurs on undersides of leaves in clusters- sori. Most homosporous |
| Do seed plants produce spores? | YES! |
| What are progymnosperms? | They are woody without seeds and have spores. |
| What are the two groups of seed plants that exist today? | Gymnosperms and angiosperms |
| What do gymnosperms include? | Cycads (300 species), ginkgos (one living species), gnetophytes (90 species), and conifers (700 species). |
| What do angiosperms include? | Flowering plants with fruits. |
| Describe seed plants. | Earliest gymnosperms had swimming sperm (cycads and ginkgos). They have microsporangium and megasporangium, and are heterosporous. |
| What is microsporangium? | Male. Microspores that divide mitotically to produce male gametophyte = pollen grain (walls have sporopollenin) |
| What is megasporangium? | Female. Megaspores develop into female gametophyte - group of cells (2000). Surrounded by integument (sporophyte material). Pollen tube present. |
| What does heterosporous mean? | When one spore becomes a female gametophyte and the other becomes a male gametophyte. |
| What is sporopillenin? | Super strong surrounding the pollen grain. |
| Is sporophyte haploid or diploid? | Diploid |
| Is gametophyte haploid or diploid? | Haploid |
| What makes up the ovule? | Megasporangium and integument. Becomes the seed. |
| When does pollination occur? | When pollen grain is near the female gametophyte. |
| When does fertilization occur? | When sperm and egg make contact. |
| What does integument become? | The seed coat. Diploid. |
| Describe the three generations that make up seeds. | Outer layer is seed coat from the diploid sporophyte parent (integument; for protection). Surrounding haploid female gametophytic tissue contains nutrients (food for embryo). The center is embryo, new diploid sporophyte generation (sperm and egg fused). |
| Why are seeds so awesome?! | They are well-protected, long viability, no drying out, adaptations for dispersal. |
| What is wheat germ? | Embryo |
| What is the difference between brown rice and white rice? | Brown rice has aleurone intact thus having starch and protein, while white rice has the aleurone polished off thus having only starch. Wheat-bran is aleurone and pericarp. |
| Describe gymnosperms. | Only have tracheids. Dominant in high altitudes and latitudes. |
| What is megastrobilus? | Female cone. Seed-bearing. Seeds protected by woody scales. |
| What is microstrobilus? | Male cone. Pollen-bearing. Usually not woody. |
| What is aril? | Modified scale. Some conifers have soft, fleshy, fruit-like tissue around seeds. Animals disperse in their droppings. |
| What are the synapomorphies of angiosperms? | Double fertilization. Endosperm - nutritive tissue in seeds. Ovules and seeds enclosed in a carpel. Flower. Fruits. Phloem with companion cells. Reduced gametophytes. Ovules become seeds when matured. |
| What is double fertilization? | 2 sperm are involved. One combines with an egg = fertilization. Other combines with two haploid nuclei from female gametophyte, triploid nucleus is created which becomes endosperm. |
| What is a perfect flower? | Have both mega- and microsporangia. |
| What is an imperfect flower? | Have either mega- and microsporangia. |
| What is monoecious? | "One housed"; male and female flowers occur on the same plant. |
| What is dioecious? | "Two housed"; male and female flowers on different plants. |
| What are tepals? | When petals and sepals are indistinguishable. |
| What is inflorescence? | Grouping of flowers |
| What are the two ways that angiosperms have co-evolved with animals? | Pollination and dispersal |
| What are simple fruits? | Develop from one carpel. CHERRY! |
| What are aggregate fruits? | Develop from several carpels and one flower. Rasberry. |
| What are multiple fruits? | Develop from a cluster of flowers. Pineapple. |
| What are accessory fruits? | Develop from parts other than carpels. Apple. Strawberry. |
| What makes up the carpel? | Stigma, style, and ovule. |
| Describe the basic body plan of a plant. | Harvest sunlight energy. Collect sparse water and minerals from soil. Can redirect growth in response to the environment. Have roots, stems, and leaves. |
| What are the functions of the root system? | Anchors plants, absorbs water and minerals, stores photosynthesis products, high surface area. |
| What are the functions of the shoot system? | System includes stems, leaves, and flowers. Leaves perform photosynthesis. Stems are the connection between roots and leaves. |
| Describe a Eudicot. | Net type leaves. Branches. Taproot. Can perform both secondary and primary growth. Xylem in X shape. Two cotyledon. Flowers in 4s or 5s. A petiole. |
| Describe a Monocot. | Parallel leaves. Fibrous root system. Can't perform secondary growth, only primary growth. One cotyledon. Flowers in 3s. No petiole. Xylem in circle. |
| Describe taproot systems. | Single large root, food storage, small side roots. |
| Describe fibrous root systems. | Large surface area. |
| Describe prop roots. | Support stem in some monocots. Can't thicken stems. |
| What are buds? | Undeveloped shoots. |
| What are phytomers? | Repeating module of leaves, node, internode, axillary bud. |
| What is the axillary bud? | Form where leaf meets stem, can develop into new branches. |
| What are terminal buds? | Upward growth or develop into flowers. |
| Can stems be modified? If so, how??? | YES! Potatos - "eyes" are axillary buds. Desert plants can store water in their stems. Runners are horizontal stems that new plans can arise from. |
| Can leaves be modified? If so, how??? | YES!!!! Onion bulbs are leaves used for food storage. Leaves can store water. Tendrils are modified leaves used for climbing. |
| Describe plant cells. | Have chloroplasts, central vacuole, and cell walls with cellulose. Turgor pressure keeps the cells upright. |
| What is the cell wall composed of? | Cellule which is polymers (many pieces) of glucose that form microfibrils. Hemicellulose (tie structures together) is highly branched chains that cross-link. Pectins (jello) are heterogeneous polysaccharides. |
| Describe how plants grow by cell expansion. | Protoplasts expand and the cell wall loosens linkages. The secondary wall inside the primary wall may be secreted. The expanding slows or stops on the inside. Embedded lignin is in the bark (second most abundant biological polymer!). |
| What is a protoplast? | Living contents of plant cell. |
| What is lignin? | Strong, waterproof, and resistant to digestion. |
| How do plant cells communicate? | Plasmodesmata, which are canals traversed by strand of ER holes in the plasma. |
| What are apical meristems? | Where growth occurs. Clusters of undifferentiated cells as tips of embryonic. |
| What are the three tissues that make up plants? | Dermal (outside), ground (meat of plant; storage), and vascular (tubing system). |
| Describe dermal tissue. | Forms epidermis which is single layer of cells including stomatal guard cells, trichomes, and root hairs. Woody plants have periderm layer as well. Epidermis secretes cuticle. |
| Describe ground tissue. | Most of plant body. Three different cell types: parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma. |
| What is parenchyma? | Thin walls so light can come through. Main site of photosynthesis and storage. Can give rise to new cells. |
| What is collenchyma? | Primary cell wall thickened with pectins. They have an elongated shape and are used for support. They are flexible. (celery strings) |
| What is sclerenchyma? | Thickened secondary walls, fibers, and sclereids. (gives pears gritty texture) |
| Describe vascular tissue. | Xylem and phloem make up. |
| Xylem and phloem in angiosperms. | XYLEM: Tracheids and vessel elements - endwalls more broken down, more hallow, stacked end to end. PHLOEM: sieve tube elements, sieve plates, companion cells |
| Xylem and phloem in gymnosperms. | XYLEM: tracheids with pits. PHLOEM: sieve cells - simple. |
| Xylem and phloem in BOTH angiosperms and gymnosperms. | XYLEM: water transport, cells dead at matrity, one-way. PHLOEM: carb transport, cells living, two-way. |
| What is primary growth? | Lengthening of shoots, roots, and branches. Occrs in nonwoody parts of plants. Apical meristem - cell division and elongation |
| What is secondary growth? | Increases diameter. Lateral meristem - grow out. Wood and bark. 2 lateral meristems in eudicots including vascular cambium and cork cambium. |
| What is stele? | Consists of xylem, phloem, and pericycle. |
| What is pericycle? | One or more layers of undifferentiated cells. |
| Where is pith located? | In monocots, pith is scattered in the stem and in the center of the root. In eudicots, pith is in the center of the stem but is absent from the root. |
| Describe leaves. | Produced from apical meristems. Growth is determinate. 2 zones of photosynthetic parenchyma cells in the mesophyll (middle) including palisade mesophyll and spongy mesophyll. Veins have xylem and phloem. |
| What is vascular cambium? | Elongated cells that divide often. Right next to and associated with the xylem and phloem. |
| What is cork cambium? | Waxy-walled protective cells that is sometimes called bark. |
| What is secondary xylem? | WOOD! |
| What is secondary phloem? | Contributes to....BARK! (anything outside of the vascular cambium) |
| What are lenticels? | Spongy regions in periderm that allow for gas exchange. They are holes in the bark. |
| What happens to plants in the spring? | A lot of water is present so the tracheids and/or vessel elements are large in diameter. |
| What happens to plants in the summer? | There is less water present so smaller in diameter. |
| Describe PALMS!! | They are monocots. They have a thickened stem but have no vascular or cark cambiums. THey have a wide apical meristem that produces a wider stem. The dead leaf bases also contribute to their diameter. |
| Why are domesticated plants BAD? | No genetic diversity exists. They can easily be wiped out! |
| What is water needed for? | Photosynthesis, transporting solutes, cooling plant, and support pressure. |
| What is water potential? | The tendency of a solution to take up water from pure water. Water moves moves toward more negative. |
| What is solute potential? | AKA osmotic potential. Solutes bind water and remove free water from solution. Lowers water potential. |
| What does flaccid mean? | Walls are not exerting pressure on protoplast. Wilted :( |
| What does turgid mean? | Water moves in and the cell wall resists further entry causing the plant to be upright. :) |
| How does xylem travel? | Bulk flow between regions of different negative pressure potentials (TENSION). Water is pulled upward. |
| How does phylum travel? | Bulk flow between regions of differend positive pressure potentials (TURGIDITY). Water is pushed! |
| What are aquaporins? | Membrane channel proteins that water pass through. They are located in plasma membranes and vaculoar membranes. |
| Describe the transport proteins. | Aquaporins. Rate can be regulated but the direction cannot be. Mineral ions (such as phosphorous, nitrogen, and iron) need active transport proteins because they are heavy. Molecules and ions move with concentration gradients because they are small. |
| Is concentration higher in plants or in soil? | In plants. More nutrients on the inside than in the soil causing them to use active transport. |
| What are electrochemical gradients? | THey are a combination of electrical and concentration gradients. Proton pump moves protons OUT of the cell against the gradient. Ions then can move by facilitated diffusion. |
| What are the two paths that water and ions get into xylem? | Apoplast and symplast |
| What is apoplast? | FAST LANE. Goes around cells (plants cell walls and intracellular spaces) and slows down at the Casparian strip of endodermis. |
| What is symplast? | SLOW LANE....... Water passes through cells. Root hair cells controls access. |
| What are Casparian strips? | Water-repellent belt that causes water to go through the cells. They separate apoplasts of cortext from apoplast of stele. They can only enter stele by going through endodermal cells. Once in the xylem, they are xylem sap. |
| What is xylem sap? | Water and nutrients traveling through dead hollow tubes. |
| What are the three hypotheses about how xylem sap is transported? | 1) Pumped by living cells? NO! 2) Based on root pressure? NO!! 3) Not pushed, pulled!!! Evaporative water loss causes tension, water cohesion. TRANSPIRATION! |
| Describe transpiration. | Passive - no energy is required. Dry air most negative water potential. Ions in xylem sap move with water. Exaporation cools plants. |
| When is the stomata usually opened? Closed? | During the day it is open to access light. During the night it is closed because there is no light. |
| Describe the stomata. | Waxy cuticle minimizes water loss but also stops gas exchange. They are holes in the cuticle where gases can come in and out. Guard cells open and close them depending on CO2 levels, light intensity, and water loss. |
| What is the process of opening and closing the stomata? | 1) Blue light absorbed by pigments in guard cells. 2) Proton pump activated (Pump protons OUT). 3) K+ moves into guard cell. 4) Water potential more negative. 5) Water rushes in. 6) Guard cells change shape and open stomata. |
| How do plants control water loss? | They regulate stomatal opening and closing or control number of stomata that exist. When water is stress, the guard cells close. When CO2 is high on the inside, stomata closes (no reason to be open). If water stress, may lose some leaves. |
| What is abscisic acid? | Hormone that senses if too much water is loss. It overrides light. |
| What is translocation? | The moving of carbs through phloem in bother directions. The sources travel to sinks (leaves to fruits). |
| What is girdling? | Edema for plants. When the connection of phloem is lost, the carbs cannot be moved around. |
| How did scientists obtain a sample of pure phloem sap from an individual sieve tube element (ONE cell)? | Aphids stick stylet directly into sieve tube and the sad is forced into the digestive tract. This pressure established that there is pressure in the phloem! |
| What is the pressure flow model? | There are two steps in translocation that require energy including loading (from source to sieve tubes) and unloading (from tubes to sinks). In loading, solutes higher in those few sieve tube elements, water enters, and pressure pushes it all toward sink. |
| Pressure flow model continued... | At the sink, solutes unloading by active and pressure transport and the water goes back to the xylem. |
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