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Chapter 8.1 PSY
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Define Developmental Psychology | The study of how humans grow, develop, and change throughout the life span. |
| Define Scheme | Piaget's term for a cognitive structure or concept used to identify and interpret information |
| Define Assimilation | The process by which new objects, events, experiences, or information is incorporated into existing schemes |
| Define Accommodation | The process by which existing schemes are modified and new schemes are created to incorporate new objects, events, experiences, or information |
| Define the Sensorimotor Stage | ages from birth-2, infants gain an understanding of the world through their senses and their motor activities |
| Define Symbolic Function | The understanding that one thing-an object, a word, a drawing- can stand for another |
| Conservation | The concept that a given quantity of matter remains the same despite being rearranged or changed in appearance, as long as nothing is added or taken |
| Reversibility | the realization that any change in the shape, position, or order of matter can be recieved mentally |
| Native Idealism | A type of thought in which adolescents construct ideal solutions for problems |
| imaginary audience | a belief of adolescents that they are or will be the focus of attention in social situations and that offers will be as critical or approving as they are of themselves |
| Personal table | An exaggerated sense of personal uniqueness and indestructibility, which may be the basis for adolescent risk taking. |
| Zone of proximal development | A range of cognitive tasks that a child cannot yet do but can learn to do through the guidance of an older child or adult |
| Scaffolding | A type of instruction in which an adult adjusts the amount of guidance provided to match a child's present level of ability. |
| Preconventional Level | Kohlberg's lowest level of moral development, in which moral reasoning is based on the physical consequences of an act; "right: is whatever avoids punishment or gains a reward. |
| Conventional Level | Kohlberg's second level of moral development, in which right and wrong are based on the internalized standards of others; "right" is whatever helps or is approved of by others, or whatever is consistent with the laws of society. |
| Postconventional level | Kohlberg's highest level of moral development, in which moral reasoning involves weighing moral alternatives; "right" is whatever furthers basic human rights |
| Psychosocial stages | Erikson's eight developmental stages for the entire life span; each is defined by a conflict that must be resolved satisfactorily for healthy personality development to occur. |
| Prenatal development | Development from conception to birth |
| Teratogens | Harmful agents in the prenatal environment, which can have a negative impact on prenatal development or even cause birth defects |
| Critical Period | A period so important to development that a harmful environmental influence at that time can keep a bodily structure from developing normally or can impair later intellectual or social development |
| Reflexes | Built-in responses to certain stimuli that neonates need to ensure survival in their new world |
| Maturation | Changes that occur according to one's genetically determined biological timetable of development |
| Temperament | A person's behavior style or characteristic way of responding to the environment |
| Attachment | The strong affectionate bond a child forms with the mother or primary caregiver |
| Telegraphic Speech | Short sentences that follow a strict word order and contain only essential content words |
| Overregularization | the act of inappropriately applying the grammatical rules for forming plurals and past tenses to irregular nouns and verbs |
| Socialization | The process of learning socially acceptable behaviors, attitudes, and values |
| Adolescene | The developmental stage that begins at puberty and encompasses the period from the end of childhood to the beginning of adulthood |
| Secondary Sex Characteristics | Those physical characteristics that are not directly involved in reproduction but distinguish the mature male from the mature female |
| Menarche | The onset of menstruation |
| Emerging Adulthood | The period from the late teens to early 20s when individuals explore options prior to committing to adult roles |
| General Slowing | A process in which the reductions in the speed of neural transmission lead to a slowing of physical and mental functions |
| Crystallized intelligence | Aspects of intelligence, including verbal ability and accumulated knowledge, that tend to increase over the life span |
| Fluid Intelligence | Aspects of intelligence involving abstract reasoning and mental flexibility, which peak in the early 20s and decline slowly as people age. |
| Successful Aging | Maintaining one's physical health, mental abilities, social competence, and overall satisfaction with life as one gets older |
| Motivation | All processes that initiate, direct, and sustain behavior. |
| Instinct | A fixed behavior pattern that is characteristic of every member of a species |
| Drive- reduction theory | A theory of motivation suggesting that biological needs create internal states of tension or arousal- called drives - which organisms are motivated to reduce |
| Drive | An internal state of tension or arousal that is brought about by an underlying need and that an organism is motivated to reduce |
| Homeostatis | The natural tendency of the body to maintain a balanced internal state in order to ensure physical survival |
| Arousal | A state of alertness and mental and physical activation |
| Arousal Theory | A theory of motivation suggesting that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of alertness and physical and mental activation |
| Stimulus motives | Motives that cause humans and other animals to increase stimulation when the level of arousal is too low ( example: are curiousity and the motive to explore) |
| Yerkes-Dodson Law | The principle that performance on tasks is best when the arousal level is appropriate to the difficulty of the task: higher arousal for simple tasks, moderate arousal for tasks of moderate difficulty, and lower arrousal for complex tasks |
| Social Motive | Motive (such as the needs for affiliation and achievement) that is acquired through experience and interaction with others |
| Need for achievement (n Ach) | The need to accomplish something difficult and to perform at a high standard of excellence |
| Goal orientation theory | The view that achievement motivation depends on which of four goal orientations (mastery approach, mastery avoidance, performance approach, performance avoidance) an individual adpots |
| Industrial/Organizational (I/O) psychologists | Psychologists who apply their knowledge in the workplace and are especially interested in work motivation and job performance |
| Work Motivation | The conditions and processes responsible for the arousal, direction, magnitude, and maintenance of effort or workers on the job |
| Primary drives | A state of tension or arrousal that arises from a biological need and is unlearned |
| Metabolic rate | the rate at which the body burns calories to produce energy |
| Sexual Response Cycle | The four phases- excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution- that make up the human sexual response in both males and females, according to Masters and Johnson |
| emotion | An indentifiable feeling state involving physiological arousal, a cognitive appraisal of the situation or stimulus causing that internal body state, and an outward behavior expressing the state |
| James-Lange theory | The theory that emotional feelings result when an individual becomes aware of a physiological response to an emotion-provoking stimulus (for example, feeling fear because of trembling) |
| Cannon-Bard Theory | The theory that an emotion-provoking stimulus is transmitted simultaneously to the cerebral cortex, providing the conscious mental experience of the emotion, and to the sympathetic nervous system, causing the physiological arousal |
| Schachter-Singer Theory | A two-factor theory stating that for an emotion to occur, there must be 1) physiological arousal and 2) a cognitive interpretation or explanation of the arousal, allowing it to be labeled as a specific emotion |
| Lazarus Theory | The theory that a cognitive appraisal is the first step in an emotional response and all other aspects of an emotion, including physiological arousal, depend on it |
| Basic Emotions | emotions that are unlearned and universal, that are reflected in the same facial expressions across cultures, and that emerge in children according to their biological timetable of development; ex: fear, anger, disgust, surprise, happiness, and sadness |
| Personality | A person's characteristic patterns of behaving, thinking, and feeling |
| Psycholoanalysis | Freud's theory of personality and his therapy for treating psychological disorders; focuses on unconscious processes |
| Conscious | The thoughts, feelings, sensations, or memories of which a person is aware at any given moment |
| Preconsious | The thoughts, feelings, and memories that a person is not consciously aware of at the moment but that may be easily brought to consciousness |
| Unconsious | For Freud, the primary motivating force of human behavior, containing repressed memories as well as instincts, wishes, and desires that have never been conscious |
| Defense Mechanism | A means used by the ego to defend against anxiety and to maintain self-esteem |
| Psychosexual Stages | A series of stages through which the sexual instinct develops; each stage is defined by an erogenous zone around which conflict arises |
| Fixation | Arrested development at a psychosexual stage occurring because of excessive gratification or frustration at that stage. |
| Personal Unconscious | In Jung's theory, the layer of the unconscious that contains all of the thoughts, perceptions, and experience accessible to the conscious, as well as repressed memories, wishes, and impulses |
| Collective Unconscious | In Jung's theory, the most inaccessible layer of the unconscious, which contains the universal experiences of humankind throughout evolution |
| Archetype | Existing in the collective unconscious, an inherited tendency to respond to universal human situations in particular ways. |
| Self-Actualization | Developing one's fullest potential |
| Conditions of worth | Conditions on which the positive regard of others rests |
| Unconditional positive regard | Unqualified caring and nonjudgemental acceptance of another |
| Trait | A personal characteristic that is stable across situations and is used to describe or explain personality |
| five-factor model | A trait theory that attempts to explain personality using five broad dimensions, each of which is composed of a constellation of personality traits |
| Social Cognitive theory | The view that personality can be defined as a collection of learned behaviors acquired through social interactions |
| Situation- trait debate | a discussion among theorists about the relative influence of traits and situations on personality |
| Reciprocal Determinism | Bandura's concept of a mutual influential relationship among behavior, cognitive factors, and environment. |
| Self-efficacy | The perception a person has of his or her ability to preform competently whatever is attempted |
| Locus of control | Rotters concept of a cognitive factor explaining how people account 4 what happens in their lives; either seeing themselves as primarily in control of their behavior & consequences/percieving what happens to them to be in the hands of fate/luck/chance |
| Indiviualism/conllectivism/dimension | A measure of a culture's emphasis on either individual achievement or social relationships |
| Inventory | A paper-and-pencil test with questions about a person's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, which measures several dimensions of personality and can be scored according to a standard procedure |
| Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) | The most extensively researched and widely used personality test, which is used to screen for and diagnose psychiatric problems and disorders. |
| California Personality Inventory (CPI) | A highly regarded personality test developed especially for normal individuals aged 13 and older |
| Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) | A personality inventory useful for measuring normal individual differences; based on Jung's theory of personality |
| Projective Test | A personality test in which people respond to inkblots, drawings of ambiguous human situations, or incomplete sentences by projecting their inner thoughts, feelings, fears, or conflicts onto the test materials |
| Rorschach Inkblot Method | A projective test composed of 10 inkblots that the test-taker is asked to describe; used to assess personality, make differential diagnoses, plan and evaluate treatment, and predict behavior. |
| Thematic Apperception Test | A projective test consisting of drawings of ambiguous human situations, which the test taker describes; thought to reveal inner feelings, conflicts, and motives, which are projected onto the test materials |
| Most of the children in the New York Longitudinal Study (Thomas, Chess & Birch) displayed a(n) ________. A) Insecure attachment B) Difficult Temperament C) Easy Temperament D) Slow-to-warm-up temperament E) Secure Attachment | Easy Temperament |
| Alfred Adler | neo-freudian; emphasized the unity of the personality rather than the separate warring components of the id, ego, and superego. |
| Oral Stage | Stage 1; involving the mouth, experiences include weaning, oral gratification from sucking, eating, and biting; Adult outcomes due to problems include: Optimism, gullibility, dependency, pessimism, passivity, hostility, sarcasm and aggression |
| Anal Stage | Stage 2; Involving the anus; Experiences include toilet training and gratification from expelling and withholding feces; adult outcomes due to problems include: excessive cleanliness, orderliness, stinginess, messiness, rebelliousness, and destructiveness |
| Phallic Stage | Stage 3; Involving the genitals; Experiences include Oedipal conflict, Sexual curiosity, and masturbation; Adult outcomes due to problems include: Flirtatiousness, vanity, promiscuity, pride, chastity, |
| Latency Stage | Stage 4; Experiences include period of sexual calm and interests in school, hobbies, and same-sex friends |
| Genital Stage | Stage 5; Involving the genitals; Experiences include revival of sexual interests and establishment of mature sexual relationships |
| Excitement Phase | 1st part; muscular tension increases, heart rates quicken, and blood pressure rises |
| Plateau Phase | 2nd Part; blood pressure and tension increase more and breathing becomes heavy and rapid |
| Orgasm Phase | 3rd Part; shortest phase involving a sudden discharge of accumulated sexual tension |
| Resolution Phase | 4th Part; when body returns to its natural, unaroused state; |
| Refractory period | Occurs in men during the Resolution Phase |
| Statement that reflects Piaget's theory about the stages of cognitive development | All people progress through the stages in the same order but not at the same rate. |
| A teenagers personal fable includes... (3) | 1) a sense of personal uniqueness 2) a belief that he or she is indestructible 3) a belief that no one has ever felt so deeply before |
| Someone who is preconventional would want to... | avoid all punishment or gain a reward |
| Someone who is postconventional would want to... | ensure that human rights are protected |
| Example of telegraphic speech | "mama see ball" |
| Example of overextension | "kitty" meaning a lion |
| Increased exercise is important to counteract the body's tendency to.... | lower its metabolic rate |
| Who conducted the first major surveys of sexual attitudes and behaviors of american males and females? | Alfred Kinsey |
| Evolutionary theory suggests that gender differences in sexual behavior are caused by gender differences in.... | parental investment |
| According to the text, emotions have all of the following except a ____ component. A) physical B) cognitive C) sensory D) behavioral | C) sensory |
| Which theory of emotion suggests that you would feel fearful because you were trembling? | James-Lange Theory |
| Researchers have found that resolution of Erikson's stage of intimacy versus isolation typically occurs in adulthood rather than in adolescence. One reason for this finding is that identity development is correlated with.... | cognitive development |
| According to Maslow, the need for love and affiliation is satisfied _________ basic biological needs and the need for safety. A) Instead of B) Before C) At the same time D) After | D) After |
| True or False: Cody Realizes that the goals he has set for himself are going to take too much time and effort so he decided to compromise and go for what he considers less difficult but more rational goals. Cody is a good example of a high achiever. | True |
| Murray developed the Thematic Apperception Test as a way to measure ______. | social needs |
| Trina smiled and thanked her friend for a birthday gift that she really did not like. Trina has learned the ______ of her culture. | Display rules |
| Karl is an eight-month old boy who has not received very good care from his caretakers. They respond to him when they have time and are often annoyed by his crying. Which stage of psychosocial development will Karl have unsuccessfully resolved? | Basic trust vs. Mistrust |
| The _____ phase comes before the _______ phase in the sexual response cycle. | Excitement; plateau |
| Which of the following theories of emotion suggests that the physiological response occurs simultaneously with the emotion? | The Cannon-Bard theory |
| Kyla goes to see a therapist who creates an atmosphere of acceptance and nonjudgement. The therapist is establishing ____________. | unconditional positive regard |
| _______ tends to increase over the lifespan whereas _______ tends to decrease as time goes on. | Crystallized intelligence; fluid intelligence |
| who would be MOST interested in cognitive development? | Lawrence kohlberg |
| Which theorists argued that unconscious forces were the main focus of personality? | Sigmund Freud |
| hich of the following theories of emotion suggests that first the physiological response occurs, then the cognitive interpretation of the physiological response occurs, then the appropriate emotion is identified? | The Schacter-Singer theory |
| The acquisition of symbolic function is first demonstrated in the ______ stage. | Preoperational |
| _______ is a process that causes us to begin and maintain a particular behavior in order to satisfy certain needs or desires. | Motivation |
| _______ is an observational technique in which certain behaviors are observed and recorded over a specific period of time; they are used most by ______ | The behavioral assessment; behaviorists |
| People with a __________ relish opportunities to take on new challenges. | High need for achievement |
| Austin is walking down the street when suddenly a dog begins to bark at him. His heart begins to pound and then fear and nervousness set in. Which theory of emotion best fist this situation? | The James-Lange theory |
| People who believe that whatever happens to them is in the hands of fate, luck, or chance have a(n) _______. | Extrinsic locus of control |
| According to Erikson, searching for one's identity begins in ______ with the _____ stage. | Adolescence; indentity vs role confusion |
| Lannie is an 18 month old child who has a dog at home. When he sees a horse for the first time, he says to his father, "look at doggie!" What term best decribes Lannie's comment? | Assimilation |
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