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Biology Test 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| what is the synapomorphy that unites the archaeplastida clade? | primary endosymbiosis of a cyanobacteria |
| What did cyanobacteria originally posses? What came later? | Originally the cyanobacteria only had chlorophyll A and phycoerthrins but chlorophyll B was gained later on |
| What process is found in all archaeplastida? | photosynthesis |
| Archaeplastida | -multicellular, unicellular and colonial -most show alteration of generations -marine, freshwater, and land habitants -almost entirely photosynthetic other than parasites |
| Multicellularity in archaeplastida | -all land plants are multicellular -red algae have some multicellular species -both green algae clades have multicellular representatives |
| Rhodophyta (red algae) | -6000 species -mostly multicellular (some unicellular or colonial) -phototrophs: chlorophyll A/phycoerthrins -lack flagella in entire life cycle -mostly marine, few freshwater -has a simple holdfast -most abundant in tropical oceans |
| Alteration of generations | alternation between sporophyte and gametophyte generations; both phases of the life cycle are multicellular (all plantae, some red algae, and brown algae) |
| gamete | Haploid sex cell, produced via mitosis, can fuse |
| spore | haploid asexual cell, always produced by meiosis, cannot fuse, typically grow into a gametophyte |
| gametophyte | haploid, produces gamete, produces gametangia (archegonia and antheridia) |
| sporophyte | diploid, produces spores |
| zygote | diploid, result of fertilization |
| Archegonium | egg producing, female counterpart |
| Antheridium | sperm producing, male counterpart |
| isomorphic | similar characteristics |
| heteromorphic | different characteristics |
| isogamous | female and male gametes are the same |
| heterogamous | female and male gametes are different |
| homosporous | female and male spores are the same, look alike |
| heterospory | female and male spores are different, unisexual gametophyte |
| chlorophytes | -multicellular, colonial, unicellular -chlorophyll a & b -flagellated sperm at some stage in life cycle -cell wall of cellulose and pectins -7,000 species |
| pectins | hold colonial cells together |
| charophytes | -mostly freshwater, inhabit shallow waters around marshes -less than 1,000 species -most closely relate to plantae |
| characteristics that are shared by plantae and charophytes | -rosette-shaped cellulose synthase complexes -peroxisome enzymes -structure of flagellated sperm -phragmosplast |
| benefits of a land habitat | -bright sunlight unfiltered by plankton and water -soil rich in minerals and nutrients -initially less herbivores and pathogens -more Carbon dioxide in air than dissolved in water |
| challenges of land habitat | -holding up its own weight, structural support -getting dried out by sun -limited water -no roots to absorb minerals and nutrients from soil |
| adaptations for land habitat | -waxy cuticle on plant body and stomata to avoid desiccation -apical meristem for structural support -dispersal by wind and animals, no need for water -fertilization no need for water |
| derived traits of embryophytes(land plants) | -alteration of generations -multicellular -dependent embryos -apical meristem -walled spores produced in sporangia -multicellular gametangia |
| bryophytes(seedless,non-vascular) | liverworts, hornworts, mosses -25,000 species -non-vascular (non-tracheophytes) -no roots, rhizoids -gametophyte is dominant generation -sporophyte is attached to gametophyte -most are short -found in moist environments |
| liverworts | -lobed liverworts-20% -leafed liverworts-80% -rhizoids on one elongated cell -asexual reproduction with gemmae cell -gemmae (cellular structures that are dispersed) |
| hornworts | -less common than liverworts and mosses -smallest of bryophytes -single-celled rhizoids -sporophyte generation dependent on gametophyte -stomata is photosynthetic |
| mosses | -10,000 species -leaf-like appendages arranged around a stem-like axis -multicellular rhizoids -sporophyte has stomata -sporophyte is diploid -gametophyte is haploid |
| capsule | sporangium |
| Tracheophytes | -vascular tissue -branched sporophyte |
| Xylem | -dead at maturity -within phloem -3 parts: heartwood (dead, old, innermost) sapwood (still pulling water, new) vascular cambium (produce vascular tissue and meristem) -transports water and nutrients up plant body -two types: tracheids and vessel ele |
| Phloem | -alive at maturity -outside xylem -transports sugars throughout plant body (travels both ways to storage and production) -lack nucleus and ribosomes |
| vascular tissue | -3 types: xylem, parenchyma, and phloem -develops in sporophyte -enables enhanced size and height in vascular plant |
| Tracheids | small straws |
| Vessel elements | big straws |
| Osmosis | diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane (hydrophilic) -determines the net uptake or water loss by a cell and is affected by solate concentration and pressure |
| diffusion | movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to low concentration (hydrophobic) -needs transmembrane protein(aquaporins) does not use ATP |
| hypotonic solution | -high solute concentration inside cell -water goes into cell -cell is turgid |
| isotonic solution | -equal solute concentration inside and outside cell -water moves in and out of cell -cell is flaccid |
| hypertonic solution | -high solute concentration outside cell -water moves out of cell -cell is plasmolyzed |
| turgid | normal cell, at its healthiest |
| flaccid | cell that has lost water |
| plasmolyzed | separation of plasma membrane from cell wall |
| water potential | -determines direction of water movement -combines the effects of solute concentration and pressure -water flows from regions of high water potential to low water potential |
| cohesion | water sticks to its self through hydrogen bonds |
| adhesion | water sticks to cell wall through hydrogen bonds |
| negative pressure | movement upwards |
| positive pressure | movement downwards |
| synapomorphies of the tracheophytes | -true roots: anchor,absorb water and nutrients -50 chemical elements are required by plants, but not all are essential (considered essential if it is required for a plant to complete its life cycle) |
| macronutrients | 9 essential nutrients for plant growth: oxygen, calcium, potassium, carbon, nitrogen, nucleic acids, magnesium, sulfur and phosphates |
| micronutrients | 8 nutrients not needed as much: manganese (water splitting in photosynthesis) |
| most common deficiencies in plants | nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus |
| leaves | -organs that increase surface area of vascular plants, thereby capturing more solar energy that is used for photosynthesis -2 types of leaves: microphylls and megaphylls -waxy cuticle (keeps water in) -vascularized (vascular tissue: veins) -stomata |
| microphylls | singular, unbranched veined leaves (only in lycophytes) |
| megaphylls | highly branched vascular systems in leaves |
| stomata | -pores located on underside of leaves -95% of water loss -evapotranspiration controlled by opening and closing guard cells |
| guard cells | -controlled by osmotic potential -open/close: exchange of CO2, O2 and water |
| microspores (microgametophytes) | male, small |
| megaspores (megagametophytes) | female, large |
| life cycle of female counterpart | megasporangium to megaspores to megagametophyte to archegonium to egg cells |
| life cycle of male counterpart | microsporangia to microspores to microgametophyte to antheridia to sperm cells |
| seedless vascular plants | -have vascular tissue but no seeds -have flagellated sperm and therefore live in moist environments |
| sporophytes in bryophytes | -reduced -dependent on gametophyte |
| sporophytes in vascular plants | -dominant -gametophyte lives on sporophyte |
| lycophytes | -club mosses, spike mosses, and quillworts -1,200 species -sporophyte is dominant generation -homosporous and heterosporous -sporangia in axils of leaves -microphylls -not true "moss" (vascular tissue present) |
| auxin | -produced in cell tip -elongates on the side where light does not hit -elongates the cell |
| how cell elongates | -auxin stimulates transmembrane proton pumps -H+ pumped into cell wall, acidity increases -wedge expansion enzymes separate cellulose microfibrils from cross linking polysaccarides -cleaving -water flows into cell, cell elongates -unilateral(tip to |
| ethylene | -ripens fruit -gas state -produced throughout the plant -plays a part in leaf abscission in fall |
| gravitropism | -gravity response -2 types: positive and negative gravitropism -statoliths (detects gravity by sinking to cell floor) |
| phototropism | -light response -responds best to blue light -occurs in leaves |
| positive gravitropism | growth downwards |
| negative gravitropism | growth upwards |
| thigmotropism | -touch response -hairs trigger response (twining stem) |
| cell signaling | reception, transduction, and response |
| vascular cambium | -in charge of secondary growth -expands in girth |
| opening guard cells (turgid) | -active transport of potassium into guard cells, allows water to trail behind (osmosis) |
| closing guard cells (flaccid) | -potassium is pumped out and water follows |
| stimuli for opening stomata | light, CO2, and depletion |
| stimuli for closing stomata | drought and water deficiency |
| pterophyta | -seedless vascular -ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns -sporophyte is dominant generation -11,000 species, 75% tropical -leaves are fronds and most develop a fiddlehead -clusters of sporangia:sorus |
| seeded plants | gymnosperms and angiosperms -360 mya |
| gymnosperms | -806 species -consist of four groups (gnetophyta, coniferophyta, ginkgophyta, and cycadophyta) |
| angiosperms | -250,000 species (largest) -flowering plants -carpels, reduced gametophyte, triploid endosperm, and xylem: vessel elements |
| seeds | -consist of an embryo(diploid), surrounded by food reserves(depends), and a protective covering(diploid) |
| functions of the seed | -provides protection -provides nourishment for developing seed -can be the unit of dispersal -adapted for dormancy |
| stages in the evolution of seeds | 1. heterospory:specialization of each gametophtye 2. retention of megaspores 3. survival of a single megaspore |
| angiosperms owe enormous success to: | -flowers: attract pollinators -fruits: (aid in dispersal) -presence of vessel elements (most) |
| flowers | -used to attract pollinators -4 whorls: sepal, petal, stamen, carpels -ovule: megasporangium surrounded by integument -carpal: ovule bearing unit |
| carpal | -ovule protection -stigma is: pollen selective and pollen receptive |
| embryo sac (megagametophyte) | -7 cells, 8 nuclei -3 antipodal cells (unknown function) -1 egg cell -2 synergids (hold down egg and help pollen tube orient its self) -1 center cell |
| double fertilization (angiosperms) | -2 sperm involved in pollination -1st fuses with egg to create diploid embryo -2nd fuses with polar nuclei to create triploid endosperm |
| types of pollination | -wind dispersal (most allergy causing plants) -insect dispersal (bees, flies, beetles, butterflies, and moths) -animal dispersal (bats, hummingbirds, small mammals) |
| pollinator rewards | -nectar:fluid containing sugars and amino acids -pollen (high in protein) |
| pollination ecology | the process by which pollen grains are transported from the anther |
| fruits | -matured ovary -the ovary is the base of the carpal , the ovary contains 1 to several hundred ovules |
| adaptive radiation | occurs when populations of a single species: -invade a variety of new habitats -evolve under different environmental pressures/selective forces -rapid speciation events |
| eudicot | -branching leaves -2 cotyledons -taproot present -petals are in multiples of 4 or 5 -170,000 species -vascular bundles form a ring -pollen has three openings |
| monocot | -parallel, veined leaves -1 cotyledon -vascular bundles are scattered -70,000 species -petals are in multiples of 3 -fibrous roots -pollen has one opening |
| carnivorous plants | -autotrophic plants that obtain essential nutrients from animals no soil -primarily insects -very few species -grow in low nut |
| hepatophyta | liverworts |
| anthocerophyta | hornworts |
| bryophyta | mosses |
| coniferophyta | -leaves reduced to scale-like needles, reproductive structures in strobili |
| gnetophyta | -xylem: vessel elements -double fertilization: diploid endosperm |
| ginkgophyta | -fan-shaped leaves |
| cycadophyta | compound leaves: reproductive structures in strobili |
| casparian strip | -a barrier that blocks minerals from entering the stele -located in the transverse and radial walls of endodermal cells -made of a waxy cuticle -forces water and minerals to cross plasma membrane of an endodermal cell and enter the stele via the sympl |
| parenchyma | -thin and flexible cell walls |
| cork cambium | produces cork or bark (tough protective material) |
| gases in atmosphere | -oxygen: 20% carbon dioxide:.03% |
| when did land plants appear? | 475 mya |
| when did vascular plants appear? | 420 mya |
| when did seeded plants appear? | 305 mya |
| when did angiosperms appear? | 120 mya |
| when did the split of red and green algae appear? | 1.4 bya |
| what species of charophyta is thought to have evolved into land plants? | chara |
| equation of carbon fixation | turning raw carbon into usable organic carbon for photosynthesis RuBP + CO2= (2)3PGA (carboxylase) |
| what two types of reactions occur inside chloroplasts? | light reaction and calvin cycle |
| what twp types of energy are created from the light reaction? | ATP and NADPH |
| photorespiration | -occurs in C3 plants -stomata close on hot days -reduction in CO2 and increase of O2 |
| rubisco has a higher affinity for? | CO2 |
| when O2 increases within in plant? | rubisco catalyzes an alternative reaction RuBP + O2= (1)3PGA and (1)2carbon product (lost as CO2)(oxygenase) |
| examples of C4 plants | -corn -grasses -sugarcane |
| examples of C3 plants | -rice -wheat -soybean |
| examples of CAM plants | -pineapple -cacti |
| CAM plants | -stomata open at night: CO2 enters -stomata close during day (conserves water): CO2 is released into calvin cycle -temporally separated -CO2 stored as 4 carbon molecule in vacuole -increase CO2 concentration, avoid photorespiration -occurs in same ce |
| C3 plants | -calvin cycle occurs in mesophyll -temp optimum: 20-25C -low water efficiency -goes through photorespiration |
| C4 plants | -spacially separated -avoids photorespiration -calvin cycle occurs in bundle sheath cells -temp optimum: -high water efficiency |
| tropisms | any growth response that results in plant organs moving in response to stimuli (nearly all responses are under hormonal control) |
| polar transport | not driven by gravity (auxins are unilaterally transported) |
| gibberellins | -hormone -roots and young leaves are primary site of synthesis of this hormone -two main functions: stimulate cell elongation and division, and stimulation of fruit growth (grapes) |
| ethylene | -gas -produced throughout plant body -functions: leaf abcission, and fruit ripening |
| nitrogen (macronutrient) | in amino acids which make up proteins |
| potassium (macronutrient) | controls guard cells |
| phosphorous (macronutrient) | |
| bulk flow | -long distance transport of fluid throughout plant body -not affected by gravity -occurs in xylem (negative pressure) -moves by positive and negative pressure |
| aquaporins | transmembrane proteins that pull water molecules behind it (hydrophilic) |
| plasmadesmata | connections between two cells where hydrophilic things can pass through |
| translocation | -occurs in cells that make up the phloem -sugar transport moved by bulk flow -bulk flow in phloem is driven by positive pressure -unloading occurs in sink tissues by diffusion -phloem sap has sugar, amino acids, hormones, water, and minerals -up and |
| adaptations that reduce water loss | -hairs (block wind) -buried stomata (wind cant blow water away) -increased surface area (whole stem are the leaves) |
| gnetophyta | -bizarre -2 genus: ephedra-jointed green stems, xylem and vessel elements, 50 desert species, source of ephedrine witschia mirabilis-1 species in nambian desert, two persistent leaves, diecious |
| apoplast | the continuum formed by cell walls, extracellular spaces, and the dead interiors of tracheids and vessels |
| symplast | the continuum formed by the cytosol of cells |
| monecious (bisexual) | having male and female reproductive structures on the same plant |
| diecious (unisexual) | having male and female reproductive structures on the different plants |
| produced by calvin cycle | -ADP -NADP+ |
| etiolation | growth without chlorophyll |
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UniQu3
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