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Biology Ch26-34
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| taxonomy | scientific discipline of classification of organisms |
| Order of classification | Family, order, classes, phyla, kingdom, domain |
| Taxon | named taxonomic unit at any level of hierarchy |
| phylogenetic tree | branching pattern |
| PhyloCode | only names groups that include common ancestor and all its descendants |
| branch points | divergence of two evolutionary lineages |
| sister taxa | groups of organisms that share an immediate common ancestor |
| rooted | branch point within the tree represents last common ancestor of all taxa in the tree |
| polytomy | branch point from which more than two descendant groups emerge |
| clades | includes ancestral species and all of its descendants |
| monophyletic | consists of ancestral species and all its descendants |
| paraphyletic | ancestral species and some, but not all, descendants |
| polyphyletic | taxa with different ancestors |
| shared ancestral character | character that originated in an ancestor of the taxon |
| shared derived character | an evolutionary novelty unique to a particular clade |
| outgroup | species or group of species from an evolutionary lineage that is known to have diverged before the lineage that includes the species we are studying |
| ingroup | species we are studying |
| maximum parsimony | investigate the explanation that is consistent with the facts |
| maximum likeliihood | given certain rules about how DNA changes over time, tree can be found that reflects most likely sequence of evolutionary events |
| analogy | similar environmental pressures and natural selection produce similar adpations in organisms from different lineages |
| homoplasies | another name for analogous structures |
| molecular systematics | discipline that uses DNA and other molecular data to determine evolutionary relationships |
| phylogenetic bracketing | predict that features shared by two groups of closely related organisms are present in ancestor and all of its descendants |
| gene families | groups of related genes within an organism's genome |
| orthologous genes | homologous genes found in different species because of speciation |
| paralogous genes | gene duplication, found in more than one copy in the same genome |
| molecular clock | yardstick for measuring absolute time of evolutionary change based on the observation that some genes and other regions of genomes appear to evolve at constant rates |
| neutral theory | much evolutionary change in genes and proteins has no effect on fitness and therefore is not influenced by Darwinian evolution |
| horizontal gene transfer | process in which genes are transferred from one genome to another through mechanisms such as exchange of transposable elements and plasmids, viral infection, fusions of organisms |
| peptidoglycan | network of modified sugar polymers cross-linked by short polypeptides, encloses bacterium and anchors other molecules |
| Gram stain | technique to classify many bacterial species into two groups |
| Gram-positive | simpler walls with large amount of peptidoglycan |
| Gram-negative | less peptidoglycan and structurally more complex, with outer membrane of lipopolysaccharides, more resistant to antibiotics |
| capsule | covers cell wall, sticky layer of polysaccharide or protein |
| fimbriae | protein appendages that help prokaryotes stick to their substrate or to one another, also known as attachment pili |
| sex pili | appendages that pull two cells together prior to DNA transfer from one cell to the other |
| taxis | movement toward or away from a stimulus |
| nucleoid | region of cytoplasm that appears lighter than the surrounding cytoplasm |
| plasmids | smaller rings of separately replicating DNA |
| 3 key features of reproduction in prokaryotes | small, reproduce by binary fission, short generation times |
| endospores | resistant cells when an essential nutrient is lacking |
| transformation | genotype and possibly phenotype of a prokaryotic cell are altered by the uptake of foreign DNA from its surroundings |
| transduction | bacteriophages carry bacterial genes from one host cell to another, transduction is a type of horizontal gene transfer |
| conjugation | genetic material transferred between two bacterial cells that are temporarily joined |
| F factor | piece of DNA that gives ability to form sex pili and donate DNA during conjugation |
| F plasmid | F factor in plasmid form |
| Hfr cell | cell with F factor built into chromosome |
| R plasmid | resistance genes carried by plasmids |
| Photoautotroph | photosynthetic organisms that capture true light and synthesize organic compounds (plants/algae), inorganic compound needed |
| Chemoautotroph | oxidize inorganic substances as energy source, chemicals, unique to prokaryotes, obtain inorganic compound |
| Photoheterotroph | harness energy from light but must obtain carbon in organic form, unique to marine/salt prokaryotes |
| Chemoheterotrophs | must consume organic molecules to obtain both energy and carbon, widespread among prokaryotes |
| Obligate aerobes | use O2 for cellular respiration and cannot grow without it |
| Obligate anaerobes | poisoned by O2 |
| anaerobic respiration | substances other than O2 accept electrons at the downhill end of electron transport |
| Facultative anaerobes | use O2 if present, but can also carry out anaerobic respiration |
| nitrogen fixation | convert nitrogen to ammonia, then can incorporate into amino acids |
| heterocytes | few specialized cells that carry out only nitrogen fixation |
| biofilms | surface coating colonies in which metabolic cooperation between different prokaryotic species often occurs |
| extremophiles | environments so extreme that few other organisms can survive (Archaea) |
| extreme halophiles | live in highly saline environments (Archaea) |
| extreme thermophiles | thrive in very hot environments (Archaea) |
| methanogens | moderate environments, use CO2 to oxidize H2, releasing waste of methane |
| Proteobacteria | gram-negative, includes large variety |
| Chlamydias | can survive only within animal cells, gram-negative walls lack peptidoglycan |
| Spirochetes | helical heterotrophs spiral through environment |
| Cyanobacteria | photoautotrophs only prokaryotes with plantlike photosynthesis, abundand with water, some have specialized nitrogen fixation |
| Gram-positive bacteria | various, many solitary species |
| decomposers | chemoheterotrophic prokarotes, breaking down stuff |
| symbiosis | ecological relationship in which two species live in close contact |
| host | larger organism in symbiosis |
| smybiont | smaller organism in symbiosis |
| mutualism | both benefit from symbiosis |
| commensalism | one species benefits while other isn't affected |
| parasitism | ecological relationship where paraside eats things from host |
| pathogens | diseases caused by parasites |
| exotoxins | proteins secreted by certain bacteria and other organisms |
| endotoxins | lipopolysaccharide components of the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria, released only when bacteria die and cell walls break down |
| bioremediation | use of organisms to remove pollutants from soil, air, or water, prokaryotes primary agents |
| protist | unicellular groups of eukaryotes, many exceptions |
| mixotrophs | combine photosynthesis and heterotrophic nutrition (Protist) |
| secondary endosymbiosis | 2nd time being engulfed |
| excavata | excavated feeding groove on one side of cell body, unique cytoskeletal features (Protist) |
| chromalveolata | most important photosynthetic organisms (Protist) |
| Rhizaria | species of amoebas, have pseudopodia (Protist) |
| Archaeplastida | red algae / green algae, and land plants (Protist) |
| Unikonta | amoebas that have love/tubeshaped pseudopodia (Protist) |
| Diplomonads and parabasalids | modified mitochondria, Excavates |
| Euglenozoans | Spiral or crystalline rod inside flagella, Excavates |
| Alveolates | Membrane-bounded sacs beneath plasma membrane (Chromalveolates) |
| Stramenopiles | hairy and smooth flagella (Chromalveolates) |
| Forams | Amoebas with threadlike pseudopodia and a porous shell (Rhizarians |
| Radiolarians | Amoebas with threadlike pseudopodia radiating from central body (Rhizarians) |
| Red Algae | Phycoerythrin (accessory pigment) (Archaeplastida) |
| Green algae | Plant-type chloroplasts (Archaeplastida) |
| Amoebozoans | Amoebas with lobe-shaped pseudopodia (Unikonts) |
| Distinctive traits of land plants with charophtyes (green algae | rosette shaped cellulose synthesizing complexes, peroxisome enzymes, structure of flagellated sperm, formation of phragmoplast |
| phragmoplast | group of microtubules that forms between the daughter nuclei of dividing cell |
| sporopollenin | layer of durable polymer prevents exposed zygotes from drying out |
| placental transfer cells | present in adjacent maternal tissue, enhance transfer of nutrients from parent to embryo |
| sporangia | multicellular organs that produces the spores |
| sporocytes | spore mother cells |
| gametangia | production of gametes within multicellular organs |
| archegonia | female gametangia |
| antheridia | male gametangia |
| apical meristems | localized regions of cell division at the tips of shoots and roots |
| cuticle | polyester/wax epidermis that acts as waterproofing |
| cascular tissue | cells joined nito tubes that transport water/nutrients throughout plant body |
| bryophytes | nonvascular plants |
| lycophytes | club mosses and relatives |
| pterophytes | ferms and relatives |
| grade | collection of organisms that share a cmomon level of biological organization or adaptation |
| gymnosperms | grouped as naked seed plants, seeds not in chambers |
| angiosperms | huge clade consisting of all flowering plants |
| nonvascular plant phyla | liverworts, hornworts, mosses |
| protonema | mass of green, branched, one-cell thick filaments produced by germinating moss spores |
| gametophore | apical meristem that generates this structure, this plus protonema makes body of moss gametophyte |
| rhizoids | long tubular single cells, anchor gametophytes |
| liverworts | flattened shape, look like mini trees, liver-shaped |
| hornworts | long tapered shape, lacks a seta and only consists of sporangium |
| mosses | small height, mainly gametophytes |
| bryophyte foot | absorbs nutrients from gametophyte |
| seta | stalk conducts materials to sporangium |
| capsule | sporangium, produces spores by meiosis |
| peristome | upper part of capsule, interlocking, toothlike structures |
| stomata | specialized pores in all vascular plants |
| peat | extensive deposits of partially decayed organic material from moss |
| xylem | conducts most of water/minerals |
| tracheids | tube-shaped cells that carry water and minerals up from roots |
| lignin | phenolic polymer that strengthens cell walls |
| phloem | cells arranged into tubes that distribute sugars |
| roots | organs that absorb water/nutrients from soil |
| leaves | increase surface area of plant body, photosynthesis |
| microphylls | small spineshaped leaves supported by single strand of vascular tissue |
| megaphylls | leaves with highly branched vascular system |
| sporophylls | leaves that bear sporangia |
| sori | clusters of sporangia on undersides of sporophylls |
| strobili | conelike structures that groups of sporophylls form |
| homosporous | one type of sporangium that produces one type of spore |
| heterosporous | two types of sporangia, two kinds of spores |
| megaspores | develop into female gametophyes |
| microspores | develop into male gametophytes |
| integument | layer of sporophyte tissue envelops and protects megasporangium |
| ovule | whole structure - megasporangium, megaspore, integument |
| pollen grain | male gametophyte within pollen wall |
| pollination | transfer of pollen to the part of a seed plant |
| cycadophyta | cycads, large cones and palmlike trees |
| ginkgophyta | ginkgos, only one species, fanlike leaves |
| gnetophyta | grouped on molecular data |
| coniferophyta | conifers, large trees, most evergreen |
| flower | angiosperm structure for sexual reproduction |
| sepals | green and enclose flower before opens |
| petals | brightly colored, aid in attracting pollinators |
| stamen | microspores that develop into pollen grains containing male gametophytes |
| filament/anther | makes up stamen, stalk/top |
| carpel | make megaspores and female gametophytes |
| stigma | receives pollen |
| style | leads from stigma to ovary |
| micropyle | pore in the ineguments of the ovule, discharges sperm cells |
| double fertilization | one fertilization produces zygote and other a triploid cell, unique to angiosperms |
| cotyledons | one or two seed leaves after double fertilization |
| endosperm | tissue rich in starch and other reserves that nourish embryo |
| monocot | species with one cotyledon, veins parallel, vascular tissue scattered, root system, pollen grain with one opening, floral organs in three's |
| eudicot | species with two cotyledon, veins netlike, vascular tissue in a ring, taproot, three openings in pollen grain, multiples of four/five |
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stervy
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