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Bio 152 Exam 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Nesting in organisms | Similarities are nested among organisms based on their shared features (species |
| Biological Evolution | Change over generations in the characteristics of a population |
| 3 Requirements for biological evolution | 1. Population 2. Reproduction 3. Heritable Variation |
| Heritable Variation | Essential requirement for evolution Most phenotypic variation within populations is due to mix of genetic and environmental factors |
| Adaptation | Trait that enhances survival or reproduction in a particular environment |
| Microevolution | Focus on populations and changes in allele frequencies from one generation to next |
| Macroevoltion | Focus on larger trends and longer period of time |
| Locus | Specific place along chromosome where a given gene is located |
| Allele | Any alternative versions of a gene |
| genotype | genetic constitution of an individual at a given locus |
| phenotype | observable characteristics of an individual (the physical and physiological triats) |
| Essential requirement for evolution | variation |
| ultimate source for evolution | mutations |
| without mutation there is no _____________ | new variation |
| without variation there is no __________ | evolution |
| Point mutations | one base changes |
| Synonymous mutations | doesn't change amino acid |
| non-synomous mutations | changes amino acid (GAA --> GUA) |
| Mutation to stop codon | causes premature termination of protein |
| Frameshift mutation | Insertion or Deletion |
| Chromosome Rearrangements | Deletions Duplication Inversions (order reversed) Translocations (reciprocal) Fission and Fusion |
| karotype | description of set of chromosomes of an organism |
| Aneuploidy | cell with a chromosome number that isn't exact multiple of haploid |
| Polyploidy | cell with more than 2 sets of homologous chromosomes (3N, 4N) Either autoploidy or allopolyploid |
| Autopolyploid | Formed from 1 species |
| Allopolyploid | formed from hybridization of 2 species |
| Variation increases by | sexual reproduction. But sexual reproduction can also reduce variation |
| Pleitropic mutation | affects on character |
| Relative fitness | Contribution an individual makes to the gene pool for the next generation, relative to other individuals |
| Mutation is ________ | Random. Don't occur because they're beneficial |
| Polymorphic locus | more than one allele in population |
| Gene pool | simplified model of a sexually reproducing population |
| Genotype frequency | proportion of population with a particular genotype |
| Allele frequency | proportion of population with a particular allele |
| H-W Equilibrium | 1. No migration (gene flow) 2. No mutation 3. Mating is random 4. No natural selection (equal probability of survival and reproduction = all genotypes have equal relative fitness 5. Population is infinitely large |
| If any conditions necessary for H-W not met... | Evolution occurs!! |
| Only evolution by _____________ ________________ can produce long term adaptations in a population | Natural Selection |
| Natural Selection | Process in which organisms with certain inherited characterisitics are more likely to survive and reproduce than organisms with other characteristics |
| Relative Fitness Components | 1. Survival up to reproduction age 2. Mating success 3. Number of offspring 4. Number of successful offspring |
| Forms of Natural Selection | Directional Stabilizing Disruptive |
| Adaptation is a result of ________ __________ | Directional Selection |
| Adaptation Common Errors | 1. Natural selection starts with "random variation" but the results aren't random 2. Doesn't act for the "good" of the species 3. No connection between mutational processes and phenotypes produced. MUTATION IS RANDOM |
| Effects of Genetic Drift | 1. More significant in small populations 2. Can cause allele frequencies to change at random 3. Lead to loss of genetic variation within populations 4. Can cause harmful alleles to become fixed |
| Founder Effect | Small group establishes a new population, allele frequencies may differ from original |
| Bottleneck Effect | Reduction in population size may cause loss of genetic variation |
| Gene Flow | Migration between populations. Reduces variation between populations but increases variation in a population |
| Biological species concept | reproductively isolated populations Limits: Fossils and asexuals excluded and limited to living organisms Gene flow holds species together. |
| Phylogenetic species concept | populations descended from a common ancestor that share a common evolutionary fate |
| Pre-Zygotic Barriers | Habitat Isolation, Temporal Isolation, Behavioral Isolation, Gametical Isolation, and Mechanical Isolation |
| Post-Zygotic Barriers | Reduced Hybrid Viabilitiy, Reduced Hybrid Fertility, Hybrid Breakdown |
| Allopatric | Some kind of barrier separates two populations and they become 2 different species |
| Sympatric | Barrier doesn't allow them to interbreed |
| Hybrid Zones | Regions where 2 species actually do interbreed |
| Essential properties of all living organisms | 1. Organized structure made of macromolecules 2. Metabolism: can carry out chemical reactions needed to build and maintain structure 3. Replication |
| Fossil Types | Compression/Impression, Casts/Molds, Permineralized, Unaltered remains |
| Compression/Impression | Organism in layes of sediments and is compressed footprint |
| Permineralized | Dissolved minerals precipitate into cells and preserve details of internal structure |
| Unaltered Remains | Amber or some preserving material covers it and the organic material is preserved |
| Fossil | Any trace left by an organism from the past |
| Why is fossilization rare? | 1. Body must be relatively intact 2. Must be covered in preserving material such as sediment 3. Preserving material cannot be destroyed 4. Body must have hard parts such as a shell or skeleton |
| James Hutton | Father of modern geology; reasoned that if erosion breaks down land there must be a process to build it back up again |
| Uniformitarianism | Jame Hutton's idea Idea that we can use our knowledge of natural processes operating now to understand what occurred in the distant past |
| Relative Dating | Different layers (sedimentary rock) are deposited, newest layer on top and oldest on bottom. Therefore we can establish RELATIVE dates for strata |
| Mode | Evolutionary change (either gradual or punctuated) |
| Tempo | What are the rates of evolutionary change |
| Gradualism | Darwin Only appears in fossils due to gaps |
| Punctuated equilibrium -- Eldredge and Gould | Aprubt appearance is real, long periods with little or no change and rapid shifts associated with speciation |
| Mass Extinction | A time interval with a widespread highly elevated rate of extinction |
| Earth developed | 4.6 Bya |
| Pre-cambrian life | Prokaryotes |
| Earliest fossils? | 3.5 bya |
| Earliest known fossils? | 3.0 bya |
| Atmospheric Change | Evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis, caused by cyanobacteria and O2 increases |
| O2 Synthesis | 2.3 bya |
| Differences between eukaryotes and prokaryotes | Nucleus Organelles and Cicular/Linear DNA |
| Oldest multicellular fossils | 2.1 bya |
| Oldest animal fossil | 640 mya |
| Phanerozoic Eon | Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic Era |
| Eukaroyotes | 1.6 bya |
| Paleozoic::Cambrian Era Cambrian Explosion | 542 mya |
| Paleozoic::Ordovician Era Move to land | 480 mya |
| Vasular Plants (Silurian Period) | 440 mya |
| Jawed Vertebrates (Silurian Period) | 420 mya |
| Animals move to land (Devonian Period) | 400 mya |
| Permian Mass Extinction | 252 mya |
| Mesozoic Era::Triassic Period Dinosaurs appear | 240 mya |
| Mammals appear (Jurassic Period) | 200 mya |
| Continents Separate (Cretaceous Period) | 65 mya |
| Cenozoic Era::Paleocene-Miocene Periods Hominins Appear | 7 mya |
| Ice Age Cycles | 2 mya |
| (Pleistocene Period) First modern humans | 170,000 years ago |
| Agriculture | 11,000 years ago |
| Creataceous Mass Extinction | Asteroid Impact? |
| Global cooling and drying | 50 mya |
| Primary Causes of Mass Extinction | Habitat Loss New introduced speciation Exploitation |
| Homology | Similarity due to shared ancestry |
| Analogy | Similarity due to convergent evolution |
| Convergent Evolution | Similar environmental pressures and natural selection produce similar adaptations in organisms from different evolutionary ineages |
| Three Domain Hypothesis | Eukaryotes Bacteria Archaea |
| Horizontal Gene Transfer | Movement of genes from one genome to another. Evidence for interchange of genes among organisms |
| Prokaryote | Lack nucleus or organelles. |
| Morphology: Cell Shapes | Sphirical (cocci), Rod (bacilli), and Helical (spiral) |
| Archaea Cell Walls | Polysaccharides and protein |
| Bacteria Cell Walls | Peptidoglycan (sugar polymers and peptide links) Two main types (gram positive and gram negative) |
| Gram Positive | Thick peptidoglycan later Traps dark stain --> purple color |
| Gram Negative | Extra liposaccharide layer and thin peptidoglycan later Doesn't turn purple because dark stain washes out |
| Attachment Structures | Capsules and Fimbriae |
| Movement in prokaryotes | Flagella Exhibit taxis: movement in response to stimulus |
| Positive chemotaxis | Positive Movement towards (higher conc) |
| Negative Chemotaxis | Negative movement away (lower conc) |
| Sex in Bacteria | Transformation, Transduction, and Conjugation |
| Transformation | Pick up DNA from environment |
| Transduction | Bacteriophage (virus) transfers DNA |
| Conjugation | Direct transfer of DNA from donor cell to recipient |
| Metabolic Diversity among Autotrophs | Photoautotrophs and Chemoautotrophs |
| Photoautotrophs | Light as energy source (photosynthesis) CO2 as carbon source |
| Chemoautotrophs | Inorganic chemicals as energy source (oxidize H2S) CO2 = carbon source Some bacteria and archaea only! |
| Metabolic Diversity among Heterotrophs | Photoheterotrophs and Chemoheterotrophs |
| Photoheterotrophs | Light source for energy ==> Photosynthetic light reactions only (ATP) Organic compounds needed as carbon source ==> some bacteria and archaea only |
| Chemoheterotrophs | Organic compounds required for energy Organic compounds required for carbon source Many prokaryotes and other organisms |
| Obligate Aerobes | Require O2 for cellular respiration |
| Obligate anaerobes | Poisoned by O2, use fermentation or anaerobic respiration |
| Facultative Anearobes | Can survive with or without O2 |
| Nitrogen Metabolism | Nitrogen fixation, convert athmospheric nitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NH3) Heterocytes: Nitrogen fixing cells found in cyanobacteria |
| Protobacteria | Diverse Many species Mitochondria from this? |
| Cyanobacteria | O2 generating photosynthesis Chloroplast originated from gram positive |
| Firmicutes | Diverse, many species |
| Bacteriodetes | Includes most abundant species in your gut |
| Exotoxins | Proteins Secreted from live cell |
| Endotoxins | From outer membrane of Gram-Negative bacteria Lipolysaccharides Released by cell death |
| Interactions with Other ORganisms | Mutalism: Benefit both Communlism: Neutral for host Parasitism: Harmful for host |
| Archaea :: Extreme Haylophiles | Live in higly saline environments Have specialized proteins and cell walls |
| Archaea :: Extreme Thermophiles | Live in very hot environments Release methane as waste product Specialized DNA and protein adaptations |
| Methanogens | Use CO2 to oxidize H2, release methane as a by-product |
| Domain: Archaea, Group: Euryarchaeotes | Extreme halophiles and methanogens, some thermophiles, and some in "normal habitats" |
| Domain: Archaea, Group:Crenarchaeotes | Most extreme thermophiles Also normal habitats |
| Domain: Archaea, Group:Korscheotes | 1st found in Yellowstone Function unknown Mostly thermophile? |
| Challenges to building phylogenetic tree for Eukaryotes | Youngest groups have well defined boundries Other groups not clearly defined Relationships uncertain |
| Reasons for Uncertainty in Eukaryote Evolutionary History | 1. Lineages orginated 2000 Ma 2. Huge variation in morphology and life style 3. Much extinction 4. Horizontal gene transmission (including endosymbiosis) |
| Endosymbiosis | 1. Host cell plasma membrane invaginates, makes ER and nuclear envelope in host cell 2. Aerobic heterotrophic prokaryotic cells enclosed ... Mitochondrion 3. Repeat step 2 but it's a photosynthetic prokaryote (plastid) |
| Evidence for Endosymbiosis | 1. Mitochondria and plastids have their own DNA 2. DNA of organelles circular and lack histones 3. Organelles reproduced by binary fission-like process 4. Organelles ribosomes like bacterial ones 5. Most genes transferred from organelle to nucleus, or |
| 5 Main Divisions of Eukaryotes | Unikonts, Excavata, Chromalveolata, Rhizaria, Archaeplastida |
| Excavata | Diplomads, Parabasalids, and Euglenozoans |
| Diplomads | Largest number of ancestral features 2 haploid (n) nucleus Reduced mitochondria and simple cytoskeletons Ex. Giargia lamblia, flagallae and intestinal parasite |
| Euglenozoans: Euglenoids | 1 or 2 flagella unique storage polymer (paraphylum) Most photosynthetic, some lack chloroplasts |
| Euglenoids: Kinetoplastids | 1-1000 whip-like flagella 1 large mitochondrion kinetoplast = extranuclear DNA |
| Trypanosoma (Euglenoids, Kinetoplastids) | African sleeping sickness |
| Trichonympha (Euglenoids, Kinetoplastids) | Symbiotic Lives in guts of termites and digests cellulose |
| Chromoalveolata: Alveolates and Stramenophiles | Alveolates: Dinoflagellates, Apicomplexans, Ciliates Stremonphiles: Diatoms, Green Algae, Brown Algae, and Oomycetes |
| Alveolates | Membrane-bound cavities under cell surface = alveoli |
| Alveolates: Dinoflagellates | 2 flagellae with cellulose plate armor photosynthetic, heterotrophic, or both Adbundant, esp. in marine water. Source of "red tide" |
| Alveolates: Apicomplexa | Parasitic Complex apex Ex. Malaria |
| Alveolates: Ciliates | Freshwater Coordinated ciliar for feeding and movement |
| Stremenophiles | Hairy flagellum with whiplash flagellum |
| Stremenophiles: Diatoms | Photosynthetic Cell wall with silica -- very strong |
| Stremonphiles: Phaeophyta | Brown Algae, pigment = fucoxanthim Analogous similar to plants |
| Stremonphiles: Oomycota | Intertwined filaments Named for sexual reproduction Analogous to fungi Parasites or Decomposers |
| Rhizaria | Chloroarachinophytes Forams Radiolarians |
| Rhizaria: Forams | Calcium carbonate shells Marine and freshwater |
| Rhizaria: Radiolarians | Marine plankton only Internal skeletons of silica |
| Archaeplastida | Red Algae Green Algae (Chlorophytes and Charophytes) Land plants |
| Archaeplastida: Rhodophyta (Red Algae) | 4000 species No motile cells Red pigment = phycobilins |
| Archaeplastida: Green Algae: Chlorophytes | 7000 species Diverse life forms (unicellular, colonial, multicellular Important transition from protists to landplants |
| Unikonts | Amoebozoans: Slime molds, gymnamoebas, entamoebas Nuclearids Choanoflagellates |
| Unicellular Amoebozoans | Gymnamoebas: hetertrophic, seek and consume bacteria, other protists Entamoebas: parasites of vertebrates and some intervertebrates. causes amoebic dysentary in humans |
| Amoebozoans: Slime Molds | Once thought to be fungi Either plasmodial (single mass of cytoplasm with nuclei) or cellular slime molds (independent cells aggregate into single unit, migrates then forms stalked structure |
| Opisthokonts | cells with flagellum in rear |
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