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Microbiology Unit-1
Ch 1, 2, 3, 4, 9 and 10
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Microorganisms (types) | Bacteria, Viruses, fungi, protozoa, algae, and helminths--all are microbes. |
| Microbiology | the study of bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, and algae, which are collectively called microorganisms, or mircrobes. |
| Microorganism | a living thing ordinarily too small to be seenw without magnification; an organism of microscopic size. |
| bacteria | category of procaryotes with peptidoglycan in their cell walls and circular chromosome(s). this group of small cells is widely distributed in the earth's habitats. |
| Virus | microscopic, acellular agent composed of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat. |
| fungi | macroscopic or microscopic heterotrophic eucaryotic organisms that can be uni- or multicelluar. |
| protozoa | a group of single-celled, eucaryotic organisms |
| algae | photosynthetic, plant-like organisms which generally lack the complex structure of plants, they may be single-celled or multicellular, and inhabit diverse habitats sucha s marine and freshwater environments, glaciers, and hot springs. |
| branches of microbiology | food micro, dairy micro, aquatic micro, agricultural micro, immunology, biotechnology, virology, etc |
| immunology | studies the complex web of immune chemicals and cells that are produced in response to infection |
| public health and epidimiology | aim to monitor and control the spread of diseases to communities |
| food microbiology, dairy microbiology, and aquatic microbiology | examine the ecological and practical roles of microbes in food and water |
| agricultural microbiology | concerned with the relationships between microbes and crops, with an emphasis on improving yields and combating plant disease |
| biotechnology | includes any process in which humans use the metabolism of living things to arrive at a desired product, ranging from bread making to gene therapy. |
| genetic engineering and recombinant DNA technology | involve techniques that deliberately alter the genetic makeup of organisms to mass-produce human hormones and other drugs, create totally new substances, and develop organisms with unique methods of synthesis and adaptation. |
| pathogens | any agent that causes disease--usually an organism--like virus, bacterium, algae |
| levels of classification | begins with domain --kingdom, phylum (division), class, order, family and genus, species. |
| cell types | eukaryotic and prokaryotic |
| eukaryotic | with nucleus, fungi, algae, and protozoa, , with organelles, and only some are organisms |
| prokaryotic | no nucleus, no organelles, bacteria and archaea, smaller than eukaryotic cells, simpler internal structure, most abundant cells and all are organisms |
| nomenclature | Genus--always capitalized, species lowercased and both are italicized or underlined. |
| microorganisms in the ecosystem | photosynthesis: the light fueled conversion of carbon dioxide to organic material, accompanied by the formation of oxygen. decomposition: involved breakdown of dead mattera and wastes into simple compounds that can be directed back to life cycle |
| pharmaceutical biotechnology | any process in which humans use the metabolism of living things to arrive at a desired product--vitamins, drugs, enzymes |
| recombinant DNA | powerful technique for designing new organisms, which makes it possible to deliberately alter DNA and to switch genetic material from one organism to another |
| bioremediation | process that involves the introducation of microbes into the environment to restore stability or to clean up toxic pollutants |
| aseptic techniques | aimed at reducing microbes in a medical setting and preventing wound infections, introduced by Joseph Lister |
| taxonomy | formal system of organizing, classifying, and naming living things |
| morphology | structure |
| physiology | function |
| genetics | inheritance |
| macromolecules | proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids |
| proteins | amino acids: enzymes; part of cell membrain, cell wall, ribosomes, antibodies/metabolic reactions; structural components |
| nucleic acids | pentose sugar+phophate+nitrogenous base; purines: adenine, guanine; pyrimidines: cytosine, thymine, and uracil |
| carbohydrates | monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides |
| monosaccharides (carbohydrates) | 3-7 carbon sugars, glucose, fructose, and galactose: involved in metabolic reactions, and are building blocks of disaccharides and polysaccharides |
| disaccharides (carbohydrates) | 2-monosaccharides: glucose+glucose=maltose; glucose+galactose=lactose; glucose+fructose=sucrose |
| polysaccharides (carbohydrates) | chains of monosaccharides: starch, cellulose, glycogen--make cell wall, food storage |
| Lipids | triglycerides, phospholipids, waxes, steriods |
| triglycerides | fatty acids+glycerol: fats, oils/ major component of cell membraines; storage |
| phospholipids | fatty acids+glycerol+phophate: membranes |
| waxes | fatty acids, alcohols: myolic acid/cell wall of mycobacteria |
| steroids | ringed structure: cholesterol, ergosterol/membranes of eucaryotes and some bacteria |
| deoxyribonucleic acid | contains deoxyribose sugar and thymine, not uracil: chromosomes; genetic material of viruses/inheritance |
| ribonucleic acid | contains ribose sugar and uracil, not thymine: ribosomes; mRNA, tRNA/expression of genetic traits |
| hydrophilic | non polar molecules attract water to their surface |
| hydrophobic | repel water |
| dehydration synthesis | process common to most polymerization reactions |
| agar | indispensible polysaccharide in preparing solid culture media |
| chitin | polymer of glucosamine (a sugar with an amino functional group) |
| peptidoglycan | one special class of compounds in which polysaccharies(glycan) are linked to peptide fragments (a short chain of amino acids)--provides main source of cell wall for a bacterial cell |
| chemical bonds | covalent: share electrons; ionic: transfer electrons, hydrogen bonding: strongest and involved in stability of proteins and nucleic acids. |
| chemical bond between water molecules | hydrogen bond |
| nucleotides | the basic structuralunit of DNA and RNA |
| Components of nucleotides | phophate+sugar(ribose in RNA, deoxyribose in DNA)+ nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine (DNA only) or uracil (RNA only) |
| nitrogenous bases | adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine (DNA only) and uracil (RNA only) |
| main differences between DNA and RNA | DNA: deoxyribose, adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine; double stranded RNA: ribose, adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil; single stranded DNA contains genetic information and transfers it to RNA; and RNA translates the DNA information into protein |
| 5 major techniques employed in a microbiology lab | inoculation: producing a culture incubate: place in required temperature (cook) isolation: separating one species from another inspection identification |
| physical states of media used in lab | liquid, semi-solid, and solid media(agar) |
| functional types of media | selective, differential, and miscellaneous |
| selective media | contains one or more agents that inhibit the growth of a certain microbe or microbes but not others and thereby encourages, or selects a microbe and permits it to grow |
| differential media | grow several types of microorganisms but are designed to display visible differences among those microorganisms, shows up as variations in colony size or color, media color changes or in the formation of gass bubbles and precipitates |
| chemical content | synthetic media-recipe is known nonsynthetic/complex-unknown percentages and exact composition is not defined |
| monotrichous | a microorganism with single flagellum |
| lophotrichous | bacteria having a tuft of flagella at one or both poles |
| amphitrichous | having a singel flagellum or tuft of flagella at opposite poles of a microbial cell |
| peritrichous | in bacterial morphology, having flagella distributed over the entire cell |
| chemotaxis | movement of bacteria in response to chemical signals |
| spirochete | a coiled, spiral-shaped bacterium that had endoflagella and flexes as it moves--have flagella embedded in the membrane |
| biofilms | a complex association that arises from a mixture of microorganisms growing together on the surface of a habitat |
| outer membrane | extra membrane similar to cell membrane but also containing lipopolysaccharide. Controls flow of materials and is toxic to mammals when released.--gram negative |
| peptide | molecule composed of short chains of amino acids, such as dipeptide (two amino acids), a tripeptide, and a tetrapeptide |
| lysozyme | an enzyme that provides a natural defense against certain bacteria by hydrolyzing the bonds in the glycan chains and causing the wall to break down |
| periplasmic space | a well developed space that surrounds the peptidoglycan of bacteria cell walls |
| mycoplasma | bacteria that naturally lack a cell membrane--the cell wall of mycoplasma is stabilized by sterols and is resistant to lysis (by lysozymes) |
| L forms | when mutations can cause some bacteria to lose the ability to synthesize the cell wall |
| endospores | dormant bodies produced by the bacteria Bacillus, Clostridium, have a two-phase life cycle---a vegetative cell and an endospore small, dormant, resistant derivative of a bacterial cell that germinates under favorable growth conditions into a vegetativve |
| virulent factors | a microbe's structures or capabilities that allow it to establish itself in a host and cause damage--anything the organism survive like endospores, pili, flagella |
| photosynthetic bacteria | bacteria associated with oxygen production or release, like blue green algae--cyanobacteria |
| semipermeable membrane | phospholipid bilayer in gram (-) cell walls |
| bacterial chromosome | single circular strand of DNA which holds hereditary material--also called nucleoid |
| plasmid | double stranded DNA that is smaller and replicates independently of the cell chromosome, it bears genes that are not essential for cell growth; it can bear genes taht code for adaptive traits; and it is transmissible to other bacteria |
| flagella in procaryotic cells (external) | structure used to propel the organism through a fluid structure; composed of protein subunits; motility (chemotaxis); varied arrangement (monotrichous, amphitrichous, etc) |
| pili (fimbrae) in procaryotic cell (external) | attachment; mating (conjugation; small, stiff filamentous appendages in gram (-) bacteria that function in DNA exchange during bacterial conjugation |
| glycocalyx in procaryotic cell (external) | a filamentous network of carbohydrate rich molecules that coats cells; capsule that protects bacteria from immune cells; slime layer that enables attachment and aggregation of bacterial cells |
| Genetic information procaryotic cell (internal) | deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA), ribosomes |
| cytoplasm procaryotic cell (internal) | gelatinous solution containing water, nutrients, proteins, and genetic material; site for cell metabolism |
| ribosomes in procaryotic cell (internal) | combination of RNA and protein, and is involved in protein synthesis. |
| granules/inclusion bodies | stored nutrients such as fat, phosphate, or glycogen deposited in dense crystals or particles that can be tapped into when needed. |
| pilus | an elongate, hollow appendage used in transfers of DNA to other cells. |
| cell wall | a semi rigid casing that provides structural support and shape for the cell |
| cell membrane | a thin sheet of lipid and protein that surrounds the cytoplasm and controls the flow of materials into and out of the cell pool |
| cell envelope | outer to inner: outer membrane, cell wall, cell membrane |
| bacterial morphology | coccus: spheres; bacillus: rod; coccobacillus: rod that is short and plump; spirillum: rigid helix |
| gram negative cell wall | thin peptidoglycan layer; outermembrane; lipid polysaccharide; porins |
| gram positive cell wall | thick peptidoglycan layer; acidic polysaccharides; Teichoic acid and lipoteichoic acid |
| purines | adenine, and guanine; a nitrogen base taht is an important encoding component of DNA and RNA |
| pyramidine | thymine, cytosine, and uracil; nitrogen bases that help form the genetic code on DNA and RNA |
| antiparallel arrangement | double stranded helix structure of DNA; one side of the helix runs in the opposite direction of teh other |
| phosphodiester bond | a group of strong covalent bonds between a phosphate group and two 5-carbon ring carbohydrates (pentoses) over two ester bonds. Phosphodiester bonds are central to most life on Earth, as they make up the backbone of the strands of DNA. |
| hydrogen bonding | in replication: holds adenine and thymine together by two bonds, and three between gaunine and cytosine--DNA breaks about at the A and T hydrogen bonds |
| genome | sum of the total genetic material of the cell; chromosomes; histone like proteins, genetic material of viruses |
| codons | specific search for amino acids; a specific sequence of three nucleotides in mRNA (or the sense strand of DNA) that constitutes the genetic code for a particular amino acid |
| promoter | part of an operon sequence. The DNA segment that is recognized by RNA polymerase as the starting site for transcription |
| phenotype | the expression of the genotype creates traits(certain structures or functions) |
| genotype | the sume of all of structural and regulatory genes, which consitutes an organism's distinctive genetic makeup |
| repressor | the protein product of a repressor gene that combines with the operator and arrests the transcription and translation of structural genes |
| coil and super coil | mainly to save space in chromosomes, keeping chromosomes from getting tangled during division, and preventing breakage during replication |
| flow of genetic information | DNA=>RNA=>protein; replication, transcription DNA=>RNA; translation RNA=>protein |
| template and coding strands of DNA | A single strand of RNA is transcribed from a template strand of DNA--transcription |
| types of RNA | mRNA-messenger; tRNA-transfer; rRNA-ribosomal, primer, ribozymes |
| mRNA | messenger: contains codes for a sequence of amino acids in protein; carries the DNA master code to the ribosome--translated |
| tRNA | contains codes for a cloverleaf to tRNA to carry amino acids; brings amino acids to ribosome during translation; not translated |
| rRNA | contains codes for several large structural rRNA molecules; forms the major part of a ribosome and participates in protein synthesis--not translated |
| primer | RNA that can begin DNA replication; primes DNA--not translated |
| Ribozymes | RNA enzymes, parts of splicer enzymes; removes introns from other RNAs in eucaryotes--not translated |
| replication | in DNA synthesis, the semiconservative mechanisms that ensure precise duplication of the parent DNA strands |
| enzymes involved in replication | helicase, primase, DNA polymerase III, DNA polymerase I, ligase, and gyrase |
| helicase | unzipping the DNA helix |
| primase | synthesizing an RNA primer |
| DNA polymerase III | adding bases to the new DNA chain; proofreading the chain for mistakes |
| DNA polymerase I | removing primer, closing gaps, repairing mismatches |
| ligase | final binding of nicks in DNA during synthesis and repair |
| gyrase | supercoding |
| transcription | mRNA synthesis; the process by which a strand of RNA is produced against a DNA template; first stage of gene expression; enzyme used in RNA polymerase |
| translation | protein synthesis; the process of decoding the messenger RNA code into a polypeptide; 2nd stage of gene mutation |
| translation steps | initiation, elongation, termination-release factor, start codon and stop codon |
| lactose (lac) operon | control system that manages the regulation of lactose metalbolism (gene regulation in bacteria). It is composed of three DNA segments, including a regulator, a control locus, and a structural locus. |
| repressible operon | an operon that under normal circumstances is transcribed; the buildup of the operon's amino acid product causes transcription of the operon to stop (gene regulation in bacteria). |
| antimicrobials | a special class of compounds capable of destroying or inhibiting microorganisms; Antibiotics and drugs can inhibit the enzymes involved in transcription and translation |
| mutation | the permanent inheritable alteration in the DNA sequence or content of a cell; when phenotypic changes are due to changes in the genotype |
| types of mutation | wild type, subsitution: missense, nonsense; frameshift: insertion, deletion |
| wild type | natural non-mutated characteristic, or wild strain |
| recombination | a type of genetic transfer in which DNA from one organism is donated to another; sharing or recombining parts of a genome: conjugation, transformation, transduction |
| conjugation | Transfer of plasmid DNA from a F+ (F factor) cell to a F- cell An F+ bacterium possesses a pilus Pilus attaches to the recipient cell and creates pore for the transfer DNA |
| transformation | Nonspecific acceptance of free DNA by the cell (DNA fragments, plasmids) DNA can be inserted into the chromosome;Competent cells accept DNA; the transfer of genetic material contained in naked DNA fragments from a donor cell to a competent recipient cell |
| transduction | the transfer of genetic material from one bacterium to another by means of a bacteriophage vector |
| restriction endonuclease or enzyme | an enzyme present naturally in cells taht cleaves specific locations on DNA. It is an important means of activating viral genomes, and it is also used to splice genes in genetic engineering. |
| types of restriction endonuclease or enzyme | ligase enzyme and reverse transcriptase enzyme |
| ligase enzyme | Link DNA fragments Rejoin the phosphate-sugar bonds Used in the cloning method |
| reverse transcriptase enzyme | Converts RNA to DNA; copies called Complementary DNA (cDNA); can be made from mRNA, tRNA, rRNA--best known for replication of aids virus |
| palindrome | a word, verse, or sentence that reads the same forward or backward. palindromes of nitrogen bases in DNA have genetic significance as transposable elements, as regulatory protein targets, and in DNA splicing |
| arginine operon | a repressible operon; the arg operon is set to on, and the arginine is being actively snythesized through the action of the operon's enzymatic products |
| reagents used in gram staining | chrystal violet-primary dye, gram's iodine--mordant, acetone alcohol--decolorizer, and gram's safranin--counterstain |
| electrophoresis | a separation of molecules by size and charge through exposure to an electrical charge (Negative charge DNA (phosphate group) migrates to positive electrode)--used for analyzing DNA; characterizes DNA fragment, fingerprinting. |
| polymerase chain reaction PCR | Specific amplification of DNA Involves a denaturing, priming (annealing), and extension cycle 30 cycles are sufficient for detection of DNA Can be used to detect disease or infectious agents |
| PCR steps | 1. denaturation-heating and then cooling 2. priming 3. extension-DNA polymerase and nucleotides added |
| PCR enzymes and reagents | primers: oligonucleotides (short DNA strand), DNA polymerase: synthesizes complementary strand |
| purpose of PCR | DNA amplification for analysis |
Created by:
nancyms
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