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Biology 106
Exam 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| The plant body is a hierarchy of ____________ consisting of ______________ consisting of _______________. | Organs, tissues, cells |
| What are the 3 basic organs of a plant? | Roots, stems, and leaves |
| What is the function of the root? | To anchor the plant and absorb minerals and water |
| ___________ increases the surface area of roots as extensions on root tips. | Root hairs |
| Stems consist of ________ and ___________. | Alternating nodes (points where leaves are attached), and internodes (stem segments between nodes) |
| What are axillary buds? | Dividing meristematic tissue with the potential to form a lateral shoot (branch) located at each node |
| What are terminal buds? | Elongating meristematic tissue located near the shoot tip |
| What is the function of a leaf? | The main photosynthetic organ of vascular plants |
| A leaf consists of a _________ and ____________. | Flattened blade, stalk (petiole) that joins the leaf to the node of the stem |
| What are the 3 morphologies of leaves? | Simple (single, undivided), compound (clustering), and doubly compound (leaflets divided into smaller leaflets) |
| What are the 3 tissues within a plant? | Dermal, vascular, and ground tissues |
| What is the function of dermal tissue? | The outermost protective layer of the plant |
| What is dermal tissue called in a non-woody plant? | Epidermis, single layered and tightly packed |
| What is dermal tissue called in woody plants? | Periderm, replaces the epidermis in woody plants |
| What is the function of vascular tissue? | Route of long distance transport of materials |
| What is the function of ground tissue? | Specialized cells for storage, synthesis, and support |
| What are the 3 forms of ground tissue? | Parenchyma performing metabolism lacking secondary walls, Collenchyma as flexible support with secondary walls, and sclerenchyma as support with thick secondary walls |
| Meristems consist of ______ tissues. | Embryonic |
| Where are apical meristems located? | At tips of roots and in buds of shoots |
| What is the function of lateral meristems? | Adding thickness to woody plants through secondary growth |
| What is the function of primary growth? | Providing length to a plant |
| What is the function of secondary growth? | Providing width to a plant |
| What parts of the plant are involved in primary growth? | Primary xylem, primary phloem, cortex, pith, and epidermis |
| What parts o f the plant are involved in secondary growth? | Secondary xylem, secondary phloem, periderm,cork cambium, and vascular cambium |
| Does primary and secondary growth in woody plants occur simultaneously in the same location? | False, Primary and secondary growth occur simultaneously but in different locations |
| What are the zones in primary growth of a plant? | Zone of cell division, elongation, and maturation |
| What layers of the root does primary growth add? | Root epidermis, ground tissue, and vascular tissue |
| What is included in the vascular tissue of the root? | Phloem, xylem, core of parenchyma cells, pericycle, and vascular cylinder |
| What is the function of the pericycle? | Where lateral roots arise, the outermost cell layer in teh vascular cylinder and just inside teh endodermis |
| What is included in the ground tissue of roots? | The root endodermis and cortex storing carbohydrates while the plasma membranes absorb water and minerals from the soil |
| What is included in the dermal tissue of roots? | Root epidermis |
| Is the vascular tissue in the stems of plant continuous or discontinuous? | Continuous to transport water and nutrients |
| Where do lateral shoots arise from in the stems of plants? | From axillary bud meristems on the stem's surface so as to not disrupt other tissues like in the roots |
| What is the location and function of stomata? | Stomata interrupt the epidermal barrier and allow gas exchange between the surrounding air and the photosynthetic cells inside the leaf, flanked by two guard cells that regulate their opening and closing |
| What is included in the ground tissue of leaves? | Mesophyll including the palisade mesophyll consisting of elongated parenchym cells and the spongy mesophyll that has air spaces through which carbon dioxide and oxygen circulate |
| Is the vascular tissue of the leaf continuous with the vascular tissue of the stem? | Yes |
| Where and what is the function of the bundle sheath? | The bundle sheath encloses each vein as a protective layer consisting of one or more layers of cells |
| What does the primary plant body consist of? | The whole plant in herbaeous plants but only the youngest and not yet woody parts in woody plants? |
| What does the secondary plant body consist of? | Tissues produced by the vascular cambium and cork cambium |
| What is the vascular cambium? | A cylinder of meristematic cells increasing circumference of the plant by adding layers of secondary xylem to its interior and secondary phloem to its exterior |
| What are the layers of a stem? | Epidermis, periderm (cork & cork cambium), cortex, primary phloem, secondary phloem, vascular cambium, secondary xylem, primary xylem and pith |
| Is floral growth determinate or indeterminate? | Determinate |
| What is the order of concentric circles the flower organs develop in? | Sepals form the fourth outermost whorl, then petals in the third, stamens in the second,and carpels in the first innermost whorl |
| What is the model for the form of flower formation? Describe it? | ABC model; Sepals controlled by A only, petals controlled by A & B, stamens controlled by B & C, and carpels controlled by C only |
| What is passive transport? | Diffusion across a membrane not requiring direct use of energy |
| What is active transport? | Diffusion across a membrane requiring direct use of energy |
| What are the function of proton pumps? | A form of active transport pumping protons (H+) out of the cell with the use of ATP as energy creating a negative intracellular environment and membrane potential |
| What is the membrane potential? | The difference in proton charge across the membrane that can be harnessed to perform cellular work |
| What is the function of co-transport? | Coupling the diffusion of one solute (H+) with active transport of another |
| _______ is the diffusion of water causing the net absorption or loss of water by a cell. | Osmosis |
| What determines the direction of water movement? | Water potential |
| Water moves from regions of _____ water potential to regions of _____ water potential. | Higher, lower |
| _____ and _____ affect water potential. | Pressure, solute concentration |
| In what direction does water flow when solute concentration increases in the environment? | Water flows into the environment since increasing solute concentration decreases the water potential |
| In what direction does water flow when pressure increases in the environment? | Water flows out of the environment since increasing pressure increases the water potential |
| What are the 3 major short distance transport pathways? | Apoplastic, symplastic, and transmembrane route? |
| How do water and minerals travel through the apoplastic route? | Through the apoplast, continuum of cell walls and extracellular spaces of adjacent cells |
| How do water and minerals travel through the symplastic route? | Through the continuum of cytosol of adjacent cells by plasmodesmata, channels connecting the cytoplasm of neighboring cells |
| How do water and minrals travel through the transmembrane route? | Through repeated crossings of plasma membranes of adjacent cells as they exit one cell and enter another |
| Long distance transport occurs through ________. | Bulk flow, the transport of fluid driven by pressure within the tracheids and vessel elements of xylem and sieve-tube elements |
| How do water and minerals enter the roots of a plant? | Root hairs absorb the soil solution which flows into walls of epidermal cells, passes along cell walls and extracellular spaces into root cortex |
| How do water and minerals enter the xylem? | Minerals in symplast pass through plasmodesmata/endodermal cells into stele. Minerals in apoplast encounter casparian strip (dead end) forcing entry into symplast to enter stele |
| Bulk flow in the xylem is driven by _____ pressure. | Negative |
| What is xylem sap? | The water and minerals from the soil that entered the plant through teh epidermis of roots, crossed the root cortex, and are in the stele |
| Xylem sap is pushed by __________. | Root pressure, water flowing in from the root cortex to push up the xylem sap |
| What is a negative side effect of root pressure? | Guttation, exudation of water droplets on tips of leaves resulting from more water entering the leaves than transpired |
| Xylem sap is pulled by __________. | Transpiration-cohesion tension mechanism |
| What is the process of transpirational pull of xylem sap? | Water vapor diffuses from air spaces of leaf to outside via stomata, at first replaced by evaporation/water film/mesophyll cells, air water interface retreats and curves inward, increases surface tension & transpiration rate, water from xylem pulled up |
| What is cohesion within the transpiration-cohesion tension mechanism? | The attraction of water molecules to one another through hydrogen bonding |
| What is adhesion within the transpiration-cohesion tension mechanism? | The attraction of water molecules to walls of xylem through hydrogen bonding |
| _____ pressure open and closes stomata. | Turgor |
| Stomata are _____ when there is _____ water in guard cells compared to outside the guard cells. | Open, more; or closed, less |
| Sugars transported from leaves to other non-synthetic sites are considered ________. | Phloem sap which is mostly sucrose |
| Phloem sap flows through ________ cells and _______ elements. | Companion (transfer) cells, sieve-tube elements |
| What is humus? | Remains of dead organisms and other organic matter forming topsoil |
| What are soil horizons? | Distinct soil layers |
| What are loams? | Soil consisting of equal amounts of sand, silt, and clay |
| What are the inorganic components of topsoil? | Anions and cations |
| Can roots absorb mineral cations directly from soil particles? | No, only through cation exchange where mineral cations are displaced from soil particles by other cations (H+) released from plant roots and enter soil solution that is absorbed by root hairs |
| What are the organic components of topsoil? | Humus and various living organisms (bacteria, fungi, protists, insects, earthworms) |
| What are some methods of soil conservation and sustainable agriculture? | Irrigation, fertilization, and erosion prevention |
| What is a negative side affect of irrigation? | The gradual settling or sudden sinking of earth's surface (sink holes) due to water removal rate exceeding the water refilling rate |
| What are the primary sources of irrigation waters | Aquifers, underground water reserves |
| What is the point of fertilization? | Addition and supplementation of mineral nutrients into soil to reverse nutrient depletion |
| What do fertilizers most commonly consist of? | Enriched nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium |
| What are the two most common forms of erosion? | Wind and water erosion carrying soil nutrients far away from where they are needed |
| What is an essential element? | A chemical element required for a plant to complete its life cycle |
| What is the definition and examples of a macronutrient? | An essential element that a plant requires in relatively large amounts; C, O, H, N, P, S, , Ca, and Mg |
| What is the definition of a micronutrient? | An essential element a plant requires in relatively small amounts |
| What parts of the plant are first affected by mobile nutrient deficiency? | Older organs of the plant, younger organs need the remaining nutrients more than older organs and have a greater drawing power |
| What parts of the plant are first affected by less-mobile nutrient deficiency? | Younger organs of the plant |
| ____nutrient shortages are less common than ____nutrient shortages. | Micronutrient, macronutrient |
| Do plants have a 2-way relationship with soil? If so, how? | Yes, dead plants provide energy needed by soil-dwelling microorganisms and secretions (sugars) from living roots support a wide variety of microbes in the near-root environment |
| What are rhizobacteria? | Soil bacteria with especially large populations in the rhizosphere, known as plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria |
| How do bacteria function in the nitrogen cycle? | Nitrogen fixing bacteria convert gaseous nitrogen into ammonia and the ammonia picks up an additional H+ to become ammonium which the plant can absorb |
| What are contained in root nodules of legumes? | Rhizobium bacteria that form bacteriods |
| What is the process of forming a root nodule? | Chemical signals attract bacteria to root hair, bacteriods form, nodules form around the bacteriods, nodule develops vascular tissue |
| What are the two types of mycorrhizae and their characteristics? | Ectmycorrhizae, create a fungal sheath surrounding the root and integrate between cells of cortex but do not enter the cells; Endomycorrhizae, do not form a sheath on root surface but d integrate into cells of cortex forming arbuscules |
| What is an epiphitic plant? | Plants growing on other plants without negatively affecting the host, do not have true roots |
| What is a parasitic plant? | A plant growing on other plants and negatively affecting the host accessing its nutrients and resources |
| What is a carniverous plant? | Plants that digest organisms with excreted chemicals |
| What is photomorphogenesis? | The effects of light on plant morphology |
| What about light do plants respond to? | Direction, intensity, and wavelength (color) |
| What are the two classes of photoreceptors? | Blue-light photoreceptors and phytochromes |
| What is phototropism? | The ability to follow the direction of a light source |
| What aspects of light responses do blue-light photoreceptors control? | Hypocotal (initial stem of the seed) elongation, stomatal opening, and phototropism |
| What aspects of light responses do phytochromes control? | Seed germination, shade avoidance, determining time of day and season changes |
| Blue-light photoreceptors respond to ______ light. | Blue |
| Phytochromes respond to ______ & ______ light. | Red (pinks) and far red (true/darker reds) |
| What is photoperiodism? | Plant responses to different seasons and times |
| What is gravitropism? | Plant responses to gravity |
| Plants use _____ to detect gravity. | Statoliths, plastids containing dense starch grains |
| What are the environmental cues plants respond to? | Gravitropism, touch, drought, flooding, and salt stress |
| Thigmotropism | Plant responses to touch, in vines and other climbing plants |
| How do plants respond to periods of drought? | Reducing transpiration while deeper roots continue to grow in deeper soils where water is still available |
| How do plants respond to periods of flooding? | Enzymatic reactions causing destruction of cells creating air tubes eliminating oxygen deprivation |
| How do plants respond to periods of salt stress? | Production of solutes at high concentrations causing water potential of cells to become more negative than environment out of the cells resulting in no water loss |
| What does salt stress do to plants? | Lower water potential of soil solution, at high concentrations it is toxic to plant metabolism |
| What are the 3 stages in the signal transduction pathway? | Reception, transduction, and response |
| What occurs in reception in the signal transduction pathway? | A signal is received by the phytochromes located in the cytoplasm |
| What occurs in transduction in the signal transduction pathway? | Second messengers amplify the received signal --> cyclic GMP & Ca2+ --> protein kinases ---> phosphorylation |
| What occurs in response in the signal transduction pathway? | Transcriptional regulation increases or decreases mRNA synthesis coding for an enzyme with specific transcription factors binding to DNA; post-translation modification activates existing enzyme molecules |
| What is a hormone? | A signaling molecule produced in tiny amounts and transported to parts of an organism's body |
| What is the role of the auxin hormone? | Stimulating cell elongation through proton pumps and expansin enzyme; |
| What is the role of the cytokinin hormones? | Stimulates cell division, influences pathway differentiation, and impacts apical dominance |
| What is the role of the gibberellin enzymes? | Simulates stem and leaf growth, must be present for fruit to develop, signals the seed to break dormancy and germinate |
| What is the role of the brassinosteroid hormones? | Induce cell elongation and division, retard leaf abscission, promote xylem differentiation |
| What is the role of the abscisic acid (ABA) hormone? | Maintains seed dormancy, enables plant to withstand droughts |
| What is the role of the ethylene hormone? | Instigates triple response enabling the plant to avoid obstacles (slows stem elongation, thickening of stem, curvature of stem), influences senescence, promotes leaf abscission, triggers ripening |
| How do plants defend themselves from herbivores? | Physical defenses (thorns & spikes), and chemical defenses (distasteful or toxic compounds) |
| What is the hypersensitive response by a plant? | When attacked, on a leaf for instance, the infected leaf is shed |
| What is the mode of sexual reproduction in angiosperms? | Sporophyte-->haploid spores through meiosis-->multicellular gametophytes-->gametes-->diploid zygotes-->new sporophytes through mitosis |
| What are the key derived traits of angiosperms? | Flowers, double fertilization, and fruits? |
| Are stamens male or female reproductive organs of angiosperms? What do they consist of? | Male; anther and filament |
| Are carpels male or female reproductive organs of angiosperms? What do they consist of? | Female; Stigma, style, ovary containing ovules |
| What is a pistil in an angiosperm? | A single or group of fused carpels |
| What are complete and incomplete flowers? | Complete=flowers with all four basic floral organs; incomplete=flowers without all four basic floral organs |
| What are inflorescences in angiosperms? | Flowers arranged in shwoy clusters |
| What is the developmental process of male gametophytes in pollen grains of angiosperms? | Each anther w/ microsporangia w/ microsporocytes-->haploid microspores through meiosis-->haploid male gaemtophytes with generative and tube cells |
| What is the developmental process of female gametophytes (embryo sacs)? | Integuments surround each ovule except for at the micropyle; megasporocyte in megasporangium of each ovule-->haploid megaspores through meiosis--> one megaspore survives--> 8 haploid nuclei (egg & 2 synergids @ micropyle, 3 antipodal, 2 polar nuclei) |
| what is the process of double fertilization? | Pollen grain on stigma through pollen tube to ovary & ovules-->generative cell forms 2 sperm through mitosis-->one sperm creates the zygote, the other forms the triploid endosperm |
| Each ____ develops into a seed. | Ovule |
| The ____ develops into the fruit enclosing the seeds. | Ovary |
| What is the process of embryo development? | Splits zygote into basal cell and terminal cell; terminal cell gives rise to embryo, basal cell connects embryo to parent plant through suspensor |
| Below where the cotyledons attach is the _____. | Hypocotyl |
| The _____ is the embryonic root. | Radicle |
| Above where the cotyledons attach is the _____ | Epicotyl |
| The ____ covers the young shoot in a monocot. | Coleoptile |
| The ____ covers the young root in a monocot. | Coleorhiza |
| _____ initiates seed germination through the uptake of water due to low water potential of the dry seed. | Imbibition |
| What is the process of seedling development of eudicots? | Radicle emerges-->hypocotal hook emerges in soil-->shoot tip emerges through soil surface-->hypocotal hook pulls the cotyledon and epictoyle out of the soil and straightens |
| What is the process of seedling development of monocots? | Radicle emerges-->coleoptile emerges from the seed through the soil-->seed disintegrates as coleoptile and radicle develop |
| what is the definition of a simple fruit? | A fruit derived from a single carpel or several fused carpels; peas, pumpkins |
| What is the definition of an aggregate fruit? | A fruit derived from a single flower with more than one separate carpel; raspberry |
| What is the definition of a multiple fruit? | A fruit derived from a group of flowers tightly clustered together; pineapple |
| What is the definition of an accessory fruit? | A fruit derived from a plant in which other floral parts in addition to ovaries contribute; apple |
| What are mechanisms of asexual reproduction of angiosperms? | Fragmentation, apomixis, root systems |
| What is fragmentation? | The separation of a parent plant into parts that develop into whole plants? |
| What is apomixis? | Asexual reproduction of seeds |
| What are the advantages of asexual reproduction of angiosperms? | No need for a pollinator, allows plants to pass on its complete genetic legacy to its progeny, clones aren't as frail as sexually produced seedlings |
| What is a disadvantage of asexual reproduction of angiosperms? | Genotypic uniformity puts plants as risk of local extinction if there is a catastrophic environmental change |
| What is an advantage of sexual reproduction of angiosperms? | Variation in offspring preventing local extinction in the event of a catastrophic environmental change |
| What are the mechanisms that prevent self-fertilization of angiosperms? | Dioecious species (staminate and carpellate flowers are seperate), flowers with functional stamens and carpels maturing at different times, self-incompatibility (ability of a plant to reject its own pollen and pollen of closely related individuals) |
| What are methods of vegetative propagation in agriculture? | Clones from cuttings (callus at tip of cut end, dividing undifferentiated cells giving rise to adventitious roots), grafting, test-tube cloning (in-vitro methods) |
Created by:
jroegner91
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