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Biology 121
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| The Cellular level | atoms, molecules, organelles, cells |
| The organismal Level | tissues, organs, organ systems |
| The Population Level | Population, species, community |
| The Ecosystem Level | ecosystem |
| Deductive reasonings | principles to predict specific results |
| inductive reasoning | specific observations to construct scientific principles |
| hypothesis | explanation to account for observation |
| experiment | tests hypothesis |
| variables | something influenced by factors |
| test experiment | one variable that is altered to test hypothesis |
| control experiment | one variable is left unaltered |
| theory | explanation of natural phenomenon, supported by experiments and scientific reasonings |
| Darwin's artificial selection | breed animals for certain traits |
| Darwin's survival of the fittest | those who adapt to survival will survive |
| Darwin's natural selection | like artificial selection but nature does the pruning |
| evidence for evolution | fossil record, comparative anatomy, molecular evidence |
| Cell theory | all living things consist of cells |
| DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) | formed from two long chains of nucleotides which encode the cells information |
| gene | specific sequence of several hundred to many thousand nucleotides. (a discrete unit of information) |
| Genome | The entire set of DNA instructions that specify a cell |
| Eukarya | Plantae, Fungi, Animalia, Protista |
| What are the 3 domains of the life's great diversity | Eukarya, Archea, Bacteria |
| Electrons | negative charge, outside of the atom |
| Protons | Positive charge, inside the nucleus of atom |
| neutrons | neutral charge, inside the nucleus of atom |
| atomic number | is = to the number of protons |
| element | substance that can not be broken down to any other substance by ordinary chemical means |
| atomic mass | =p+n |
| weight of proton | 1 dalton |
| location of electron | orbital |
| neutral atoms | same number of protons and electrons |
| ions | charged particles |
| cations | having more protons than electrons ( more positive) |
| anions | less protons than electrons (negative) |
| isotope | an atom of a single element that possess different numbers of neutrons |
| half-life | decay time |
| oxidation | loss of an electron |
| reduction | gain of an electron |
| redox reactions | the process of oxidation+ reduction |
| valence electrons | electrons in the outermost energy levels |
| octet rule | full outer energy levels (8) |
| molecule | group of atoms held together by energy |
| compound | a molecule that contains atoms of more than one element |
| chemical bonds | atoms in a molecule are joined by chemical bonds. |
| ionic bonds | atoms w/ opposite charges attract. 2nd strongest |
| covalent bonds | two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons. Strong |
| Hydrogen Bond | sharing of H atom. medium strength |
| hydrophobic interaction | forcing of hydrophobic portions of molecules together in presence of polar substances. Moderately weak strength. |
| bonds | triple bond is stronger than a double bond which is stronger than a single bond |
| electro negativity | increases from left to right, increases from bottom to top. (upper-right hand corner of periodic table holds the most elctronegative elements. |
| nonpolar | electrons are equally shared |
| polar | not equally shared or more electronegativity |
| increases if chemical reactions | temperature, concentration,catalysts |
| cohesive | polarity of water allows water molecules to be attracted to one other. |
| surface tension | caused by cohesion * this allows bugs to walk on top of water* |
| Properties of water | cohesion, high specific heat, high heat of vaporization, lower density of ice, solubility. |
| Benefit to life: Cohesion | leaves pull water upward from the roots; seeds swell and germinate |
| Benefit to life:High specific heat | water stabilizes the temperature of organisms and the environment |
| Benefit to life: High heat of vaporization | evaporation of water cools body surfaces |
| benefit to life: Lower density of ice | lakes do not freeze solid, allowing fish and other life in lakes to survive the winter |
| Benefit to life: solubility | Many kinds of molecules can move freely in cells, permitting a diverse array of chemical reactions |
| Adhesion | attraction of other polar substances |
| hydration shell | water molecules surrounding |
| hydrophobic | hates water *shrink from the contact with water* are nonpolar |
| hydrophilic | loves water, polar molecules |
| hydrophobic exclusion | forcing the hydrophobic portions of a molecule together. |
| buffer | minimizes change in pH |
| hydrocarbons | molecules consisting of carbon and hydrogen |
| functional groups | molecules C-H core to specific molecular groups |
| Macromolecules | Carbohydrates, nucleic acids, proteins, lipids |
| Carbohydrates | Starch, Glycogen, cellulose, chitin which are glucose |
| Nucleic acids | DNA, RNA which are nucleotides |
| Proteins | Functional, structural which are amino acids |
| Lipids | Fats, phospholipids, prostaglandins, steroids, terpenes |
| Fats | Glycerol and three fatty acids: used for energy storage |
| Phospholipids | Glycerol, two fatty acids, phosphate, and polar R group: used for cell membranes |
| Prostaglandins | Five-carbon ring with two nonpolar tails: used for chemical messengers |
| Steroids | four fused carbon rings: used for membranes, hormones |
| terpenes | long carbon chains: used for pigments, structural support |
| isomers | same structural formula can exist in different forms |
| chiral | mirror-image version |
| polymer | long molecule built by linking together large number of small, similar chemical subunits called monomers |
| dehydration reactions | long chains are built by chemical reactions *removal of -OH or -H |
| Hydrolysis reaction | a molecule of water is added to break down |
| monosaccharides | simple sugar. can be 3-6 carbon sugar |
| Glyceraldehyde | 3 carbon sugar |
| Ribose | 5 carbon sugar |
| Deoxyribose | 5 carbon sugar |
| Glucose | 6 carbon sugar |
| fructose | 6 carbon sugar |
| Galactose | 6 carbon sugar |
| energy storage sugars | 6 carbon sugar |
| disaccharide | made by the linking of two monosaccharides |
| Polysaccharides | longer polymers made up of monosaccharides |
| Starch | storage polysaccharides, insoluble |
| glycogen | comparable molecule to starch but in animals also insoluble |
| nucleic acids | information carrying devices of cells |
| DNA | encodes genetic information,used to assemble proteins |
| RNA | reads the cells DNA encoded informations and direct synthesis of proteins |
| Nucleotides | consist of three components: five-carbon sugar, phosphate, nitrogenous base |
| Purines | found in both DNA and RNA: adenine (A), guanine (G) |
| pyrimidines | found in both DNA and RNA: Cytosine (C), only found in DNA thymine (T), Only found in RNA uracil (U) |
| base-pairing rules | A can only pair w/ T (in DNA), A can only pair w/ U (in RNA), C can only pair w/ G |
| ATP (adenosine triphosphate) | energy currency of the cell, drive energetically chemical rxns, powers transport across membrane, power movement of cells, common form of energy |
| NAD+ and FAD | molecules function as electron carries in a variety of cellular processes |
| Protein functions | Enzyme catalyst,defense, transport, support, motion, regulation, storage |
| Enzyme Catalyst | speeds up chemical rxns without being consumed |
| Defense | cell-surface receptors form the core of the body's endocrine and immune systems |
| Transport | protein hemoglobin transports oxygen in the blood, myoglobin protein transports oxygen in the muscles and iron is transported in the blood by the protein transferrin |
| support | keratin in hair, fibrin in blood clots, collagen in matrix of skin, ligaments, tendons, bones |
| motion | muscles contract thru the sliding motion of two kinds of protein filaments: actin and myosin |
| regulation | hormones |
| storage | calcium and iron stored by binding as ions to storage proteins |
| amino acids | proteins are linear polymers of 20 different amino acids. contain an amino group -NH2 and carboxyl group -COOH. the specific order of amino acids determines the proteins structure and function |
| peptide bond | covalent bond that links to amino acids together |
| polypeptide | a protein is composed of one or more long unbranched chains each chain is a polypeptide and is composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds |
| structure of proteins | primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary |
| Primary | amino acid sequence |
| secondary | coiled into a spiral alpha helix and planar structure is Beta sheet. regular interaction of groups in the peptide backbone |
| tertiary | final folded shaped. and also contains region with secondary structure |
| quaternary | two or more polypeptide chains |
| motifs | similarities between otherwise dissimilar proteins |
| domains | proteins are functional units within a larger structure |
| chaperone proteins | help other proteins fold correctly |
| denaturation | proteins environment is altered, change in shape, or even unfold |
| proteins can be denatured by | change in pH, temperature, ionic concentration |
| renaturation | when proteins environment is normal some small proteins may refold to natural shape |
| dissocation | subunits in quaternary structures may seperate without losing their individual tertiary structure |
| lipids | insoluble in water, when placed in what hydrophilic heads face out and the hydrophobic tails go to the center making a ring |
| triglyceride | fat molecule, excellent source of energy |
| saturated fats | bonded to at least two hydrogen atoms |
| unsaturated fats | between one or more pairs of successive carbon atoms |
| polyunsaturated | fatty acids with more than one double bond |
| phospholipid | complex lipid molecule, made up of a glycerol, fatty acids, a phosphate group. make up biological membranes. |
| Cell theory | 1. all organisms are composed of cells 2. cells are the smallest living things 3.cells arise only by division of a previously existing cell |
| diffusion is effected by | temperature, surface area, concentration, distance |
| as the size of a cell increases.. | length of time for diffusion from the membrane to the interior of the cell increases. |
| resolution | minimum distance two point can be apart and still be distinguished as two separate points |
| light microscope | visible light use of two magnifying lenses |
| compound microscope | magnifying in stages using several lenses |
| electron microscope | employing electron beam |
| prokaryotic cells | single circular DNA,cell wall, no distinct interior compartments, small, |
| cytoplasm | semifluid matrix, contains sugars, proteins, amino acids. |
| cytoplasm difference in Eurkaryotics | the cytoplasm contains specialized membrane-bounded compartments call ORGANELLES |
| plasma membrane | separates its contents from its surroundings |
| ribosomes | carry out protein synthesis |
| Gram positive | thick single layer peptidoglycan (stains violet) |
| Gram negative | multilayer cell wall (stain red because of the second background dye |
| endomembrane | in eukaryotic cells weave thru the cell interior and by numerous organelles |
| central vacuole | in plant cells, stores pigment, proteins, waste material |
| vesicles | smaller sacs that store and transport materials. |
| chromosomes | DNA is wound tightly around proteins and packaged into compact units |
| cytoskeleton | in eukaryotic cells, is support by an internal protein scaffold |
| nucleus | most easily seen organelle within a eukaryotic |
| histones | the protein wrapped around chromosomes |
| nucleosome | formed by DNA being wrapped about the histones |
| ribosomal RNA | composed of two subunits which are composed of RNA |
| messenger RNA | carries coding information from DNA |
| transfer RNA | carries amino acids |
| endoplasmic reticulum (ER) | largest of internal membranes in cytoplasm |
| rough ER (RER) | it has pebble like bumps on it |
| Smooth ER (SER) | network of smooth looking tubules |
| Golgi Body | flattened sacks in the endomembrane system, they manufacture and secrete substances |
| golgi apparatus | functions include collection, packaging and distribution of molecules synthesized at one location an |
| lysosomes | membrane bounded digestive vesicles, they come from the golgi apparatus and they contain high levels of degrading enzymes, which catalyze & break down proteins, nucleic acids, lipids and carbs. |
| microbodies | enzymes into microbodies is how eukaryotic cells organize their metabolism |
| glyoxysome | prokaryotics version of the microbody |
| peroxisome | type of microbody that contains enzymes that catalyze the removal of electronsand are associated with hydrogen atoms |
| vacuoles | in plant cells. used for storage and water balance |
| tonoplast | the membrance surrounding the vacuole |
| Mitochondria | tubular, sausage shaped organelles. Power plant of the cell. sites of oxidation metabolism |
| chloroplast | manufacture food supply. photosynthesis. make plants green. |
| plastids | chloroplast, leucoplasts, and amyloplast |
| amyloplast | stores starches |
| three types of fibers that compose the cytoskeleton | actin filaments, microtubules, intermediate filaments |
| centrioles | barrel shaped organelles. occur in pairs, located at right angles to each other by the nuclear membrane |
| centrosomes | the region that surrounds the centrioles |
| cell membranes consist of four component groups | phospholipid bilayer, transmembrane proteins, interior protein network, cell surface markers. |
| Phospholipid bilayer | provides a flexible matrix with a barrier to permeability. animal cells also have chlorestrol in the membrane |
| transmembrane proteins | proteins that float in the lipid bilayer. they allow passageways that allow substances & info. cross the membrane. |
| interior protein network | proteins that reinforce the shape of the membrane. |
| peripheral membrane proteins | proteins associated w/ membrane but not its structure |
| cell surface markers | like glycoproteins& glycolipids on the surface of the cell in different forms to identify them |
| Protein transporters | very selective, only let certain substances enter&leave the cell either thru channels or carriers composed of proteins |
| Protein enzymes | attached to the membrane. carry out many chemical rxns on the inside the surface of the plasma membrane |
| Protein cell surface receptors | receptors attached to the protein surface to detect chemical messages |
| Protein cell surface identity markers | like ID tags |
| Protein Cell to cell proteins | acting as a temporary or permanent bond to glue protein to each other |
| Protein attachments to the cytoskeleton | anchored to the cytoskeleton by linking proteins. Their surface proteins interact with other cells |
| transmembrane domain | membrane spanning region |
| passive transport | substances can move in & out of the cell w/o the cell's having to expand in energy |
| concentration gradient | ions &molecules can move thru the membrane easy. also the diff. between the conc. on the inside of membrane & outside |
| diffusion | Molecules & ions dissolved in water these substance move from high conc. to lower conc. |
| channel proteins | they have a hydrophillic interior that provides an aqueous channel thru which polar molecules can pass when the channel is open |
| carrier proteins | bind specifically to the molecule they assist much like an enzyme binds to its substrate |
| selectively permeable | channels and carriers are usually selective for one type of molecule and thus the cell membranes |
| ion channels | hydrated interior that spans the membrane (passage of anything to do w. water) |
| gated channels | opened or closed in response to a stimulus (stimulus chemical or electrical) |
| membrane potential | voltage difference is an electrical potential differences across the membrane |
| three conditions determine the direction of net movement of ions | 1. their relative conc. on either side of membranes. 2. voltage difference across the membrane & for gated channels 3. state of the gate (open or close) |
| faciliated diffusion | carrier proteins that help transport ions, substances across the membrane. |
| saturation | At a high concentration of proteins bound to molecules and the rate of transport is constant |
| faciliated diffusion has three characteristics: characteristic one | 1. only transports only certain molecules or ions. |
| Faciliated diffusion has three charac. char. two | 2. direction of net movement is determined by the relative conc. of the transported substance inside & outside the cell. the direction is always high conc. to low conc. |
| Faciliated diffusion has three charac. char. three | 3. saturates; revelant proteins carriers are in use, increases in the conc. gradient does not increase the rate of movement |
| solvent | water |
| solute | substance dissolved in water |
| osmosis | net diffusion of water across the membrane toward a higher solute concentration |
| hypertonic | solution with high concentration |
| hypotonic | solution w/ lower conc. |
| isotonic | both solutions have same conc. |
| require ATP (active transport) | diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis or anything that using energy to move materials against conc. gradient |
| two process in bulk transport | endocytosis and exocytosis |
| endocytosis | the plasma membrane envelopes food particles and fluids |
| three types of endocytosis that cells use | 1. phagocytosis 2. pinocytosis 3. receptor-mediated endocytosis |
| Phagocytosis | cells take in particulate |
| pinocytosis | cell takes in liquid |
| receptor-mediated endocytosis | molecules are transported into cells by this |
| Kinetic energy | energy of motion |
| potential energy | stored energy |
| 1st law of thermodynamics | energy can neither be created nor destroyed only change to a different form |
| 2nd law of thermodynamics | transformation of P.E into heat or random molecule motion |
| entropy | disorder in the universe; energy transformations proceed spontaneously to convert matter from more order, less stable to less ordered but more stable |
| free energy | energy actually available to break & form chemical bonds (energy available to do work in a system) |
| endergonic | positive. rxn requires input. R up to P. storing energy |
| exergonic | negative. rxn releases free energy. R down to P. using energy |
| Activation energy | extra energy needed to get an rxn started, destablizes existing chem. bonds |
| catalyst | lowers A.E of rxn |
| ATP (adenosine triphosphate)structure | ribose, a 5-carbon sugar, adenine, 3 phosphates |
| phosphate bonds | to store (make bonds) to give off energy to use to break bonds. highly neg. much E is required to keep bonds together E released when 2 phos. bonds broken |
| ATP-->ADP+p1 | energy released. ADP (adenosine diphosphate) P1 inorganic phosphate. rxn is reversible |
| Enzymes catalyze rxns in living cells | most are proteins, lower AE, enzymes interact w/substrates |
| substrate | molecule that will undergo a rxn |
| active site | region of the enzyme that binds to the substrate |
| When a enzyme binds to a substrate.. | the enzyme changes shape, producing a better induced fit between the molecules |
| inhibitor | a substrate that bind to an enzyme & decreases its activity |
| metabolism | total of all chemical rxns carried out by an organism |
| anabolism | chemical rxns that expand energy to make/transform chemical bonds |
| catabolism | reactions that harvest energy when chemical bonds are broken |
| biochemical pathways | organizing chemical reaction in a cell. rxns occur in a cell in sequences |
| ligand | signaling molecule |
| receptor proteins | a molecule where the signal is bond (recieved) |
| cells communicate thru four basic mechanism plus they can send signals to themselves | 1. direct contact 2. paracrine signaling 3. endocrine signaling 4. synaptic signaling |
| direct contact | when cells are very close to eachother, the receptors recognize the cell |
| paracrine signaling | signal molecules are released by cells, diffuse thru extracellular fluid to other cells |
| endocrine signaling | released signal molecule may enter organisms circulatory system & travel thru out body. ex. hormones |
| synaptic signaling | long fiber like extensions of nerve cells release neurotransmitters from their tips to the target cell |
| chemical synapse | association between the neuron and its target cell |
Created by:
threasa.hicks
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