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Bio 103 chaps 7-15
Test #2
| Question | Answer | 3 |
|---|---|---|
| Both are critical and are present or required in almost every cellular function | Enzymes and Energy | (blank) |
| Exergonic reaction | Breakdown operations, starting molecules (Reactants) contain more energy than final set of molecules (Products). | (blank) |
| Endergonic reaction | Ending set of molecules (Products) contain more energy than the starting set (Reactants). | (blank) |
| which way does energy go in an Exergonic reaction? | out | (blank) |
| which way does energy go in an endergonic reaction? | in | (blank) |
| what is a Sodium potassium pump? | Coupled reaction | (blank) |
| where does Energy to power coupled reactions come from? | exergonic (energy releasing) reaction | (blank) |
| Nucleotides | one of the 4 major life molecules we have discussed. | (blank) |
| ATP | Adenosine Triphosphate | (blank) |
| Chemical makeup of ATP? | 3 phosphate groups all negatively charged, like charges repel one another. | (blank) |
| is relatively unstable and a good deal of energy is released from its use | ATP | (blank) |
| Will ATP bond with enzymes? | yes | (blank) |
| 1st step | ATP will bond with enzymes | Enzymes protiens and ATP |
| 2nd step | ATP is split (downhill reaction) | Enzymes…PROTEINS!!!!...& ATP |
| 3rd step | Enzyme changes shape | Enzymes…PROTEINS!!!!...& ATP |
| 4th step | Shape change drives transport, binding, or some other enzyme function. | Enzymes…PROTEINS!!!!...& ATP |
| What do Enzymes do? give example. | Accelerates chemical reaction. Lactose digestion | (blank) |
| 1st step | active site formed | How enzymes work |
| what is active site? | five or six amino acids that form the substrate pocket or the portion of the enzyme that binds with and transforms a substrate. | (blank) |
| 2nd step | Binding changes shape of protein allowing it to bind with ionized water molecules, which allows C and N to latch onto new partners and clip the protein chain | How enzymes work |
| 3rd step | Protein returns to original form. | How enzymes work |
| H+ + OH- = | H20 | (blank) |
| The Most Important Energy Storage Molecule | ATP | (blank) |
| what drives the endergonic synthesis of ATP ? | Potential energy from food breakdown | (blank) |
| How does charged ATP release its energy? | breaking off the third phosphate | (blank) |
| ATP >> | ADP | (blank) |
| usable energy to cells | ADP | (blank) |
| energy from food is required to do what? | push a third phosphate onto ADP to form ATP | (blank) |
| General reactionfor energy in cells: | C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + ADP ---> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + ATP | (blank) |
| REDOX means | Electrons and Oxidation Reduction Reactions | (blank) |
| during metabolism which way do Electrons from high-energy glucose run? | downhill | (blank) |
| what powers uphill synthesis of ATP? | the electron drop Transferred by carriers | (blank) |
| molecule is oxidized | loses electrons | (rust) |
| molecule is reduced | gains electrons | (reduces charge) |
| Electron transfers to molecules | redox reactions occur | (blank) |
| how to redox reactions occur? | side by side | (blank) |
| Any compound can pull electrons from another? | True | (blank) |
| oxidizing agent | Any compound that can pull electrons from another | (blank) |
| redox reactions drive? | ATP formation | (blank) |
| Molecules that transfer electrons | electron carriers | (blank) |
| NAD+ | Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide. | (blank) |
| NADH is product of | NAD+ Hydrogen atom and solo electron | (blank) |
| Cellular Respiration General reaction: | C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + ADP --->6 CO2 + 6 H2O + ATP | (blank) |
| Cells respire to ? | break down food (glucose) into usable energy | (blank) |
| 3 Main Phases of energy transfer? | 1. Glycolysis, 2. The Krebs Cycle, 3. Electron Transport Chain | (blank) |
| 1st step | Enzymes in cytoplasm catalyze series of reactions in metabolic pathway. | Glycolysis Summary |
| 2nd step | Requires some activation energy (–2 ATP total). | Glycolysis Summary |
| 3rd step | Reactions split one 6-carbon sugar into two 3-carbon sugars (pyruvic acid is end product). | Glycolysis Summary |
| 4th step | 2 NAD+ accepts high-energy electrons. | Glycolysis Summary |
| 5th step | Enough energy is generated to attach phosphates to 4 ADP to make ATP (+4 ATP). | Glycolysis Summary |
| Describe energy produced by gycolysis | Not much energy, but fast and no oxygen was required (anaerobic). | Glycolysis Summary |
| what organisms only use glycolosis? | Bacteria and certain eukaryotes | (blank) |
| How can Bacteria and certain eukaryotes recycle the NAD+? | Alcoholic fermentation | (blank) |
| Alcoholic fermentation | yeast in absence of oxygen, must regenerate NAD+, so they dump electrons from NADH onto acetaldehyde (converted from pyruvic acid by spewing off CO2), reducing it to ethanol, but regenerating the NAD+. | (blank) |
| Lactate fermentation | in animals in absence of oxygen (muscle fatigue), pyruvate accepts electrons from NADH and regenerates NAD+, but is converted into lactic acid (muscle burn). | (blank) |
| Alcohol fermentation | Glycolysis in an oxygenless environment | (blank) |
| Lactic Acid fermentation | quick burst of energy in animals | (blank) |
| aerobic respiration | more productive | (blank) |
| Body uses _______respiration if it can | aerobic | (blank) |
| anaerobic | only under extreme exertion when oxygen drops. | (blank) |
| Intermediate step between glycolysis and Krebs | Two 3-carbon pyruvic acid combines w/acteyl coenzyme A | (blank) |
| Acteyl coA enters Krebs as | a glucose derivative | (blank) |
| byproducts of Two 3-carbon pyruvic acid combines w/acteyl coenzyme A | CO2 and NADH | (blank) |
| where is Krebs cycle completed | the inner compartment of mitochondria. | (blank) |
| 1st | NADH and FADH2 drop off electrons onto a series of molecules in the mitochondrial inner membrane. | Electron Transport Chain |
| 2nd | Movement of electrons powers the movement of H+ ions against their concentration gradient. | Electron Transport Chain |
| 3rd | Hydrogen ions are allowed to flow downhill through ATP syntheses | Electron Transport Chain |
| 4th | energy is used to transfer phosphate onto ADP to make ATP. | Electron Transport Chain |
| what stage produces the Greatest amount of ATP? | Electron Transport Chain | (blank) |
| how many ATPs does the eletron transport chain produce? | 32 ATP per glucose | (blank) |
| whats at the end of the electron trainsport chain | ½ O2 + 2 electrons + 2 H+ = H2O | (blank) |
| Plants take energy-poor reactants (water and carbon dioxide) and | use solar energy to drive the uphill reaction of trapping those reactants in complex, ordered bonds of glucose. | (blank) |
| Oxygen needed for respiration is produced as | a by-product of photosynthesis | (blank) |
| Reaction for Photosythesis | 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy -----> C6H12O6 + 6O2 | (blank) |
| Formula for Respiration | C6H12O6 + 6O2 + ADP ----> 6 CO2 + H20 + ATP | (blank) |
| visible light is | only a small portion of the energy spectrum | (blank) |
| Photosynthesis is driven by | blue and red portion of the visible spectrum | (blank) |
| Pigments reflect | green | (blank) |
| Pigments absorb | blue and red | (blank) |
| Chlorophyll A reflects | green | (blank) |
| Carotenoids reflect | orange, yellow | (blank) |
| Phycobilins reflect | pink, red, or purple colors | (blank) |
| Two Major Stages of photosynthesis | Light-Dependent & Light-Independent | (blank) |
| 1st step Light-dependent stage? | Sunlight excites electrons in pigment molecules. | (blank) |
| 2nd step Light-Dependent stage | Electrons passed down transport chain of redox reactions used to drive synthesis of ATP. | (blank) |
| 3rd step Light-Dependent stage | Electrons also transferred to a carrier, NADP+. | (blank) |
| 4th step Light-Dependent stage | Pigment electrons replaced by electrons stripped from water, making O2 gas. | (blank) |
| 1st step Light-inDependent stage | Energy from ATP and electrons from NADPH used to convert CO2 and H2O into stable carbohydrate (glucose sugar). | (blank) |
| 2nd step Light-inDependent stage | Can occur in the absence of light | (blank) |
| Photosystems Absorb | Solar Energy | (blank) |
| Aggregates of pigment molecules serve as | antenna to absorb solar energy. | (blank) |
| Reaction center of aggregate | Electrons absorb the energy and jump to electron carrier molecules. | (blank) |
| Energized electrons transferred, not just giving off heat or fluorescing. | Light-Dependent | (blank) |
| Fall of electrons from photosystem II to I used to form ATP. | Light-Dependent | (blank) |
| Electrons fall from photosystem I to NADP+ making NADPH. – nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate | light-dependent | (blank) |
| Oxygen formed as by-product. | light-dependent | (blank) |
| oxygen that is supplied to Earth’s atmosphere comes from? | Splitting of water to provide electrons and oxygen | (blank) |
| Splitting of water to provide electrons and oxygen is a byproduct of this reaction | Light-Dependent Reactions | (blank) |
| Transformation of solar energy into chemical energy | light dependent | (blank) |
| Calvin (C3) Cycle | Light-Independent Reactions | (blank) |
| The “Synthesis” of Photosynthesis, Making Food, Trapping CO2 | Light-Independent Reactions | (blank) |
| 1st step Light-Independent Reactions | carbon fixation | (blank) |
| 2nd step Light-Independent Reactions | energizing the sugar | (blank) |
| 3rd step Light-Independent Reactions | exit of product | (blank) |
| 4th step light in-depentdent reactions | regereration of RuBP | (blank) |
| Carbon fixation | three atmospheric CO2 combined with three five-carbon sugars (RuBP) by enzyme rubisco. | (blank) |
| Six-carbon product unstable; | splits into two three-carbon products (3-PGA). | (blank) |
| places a phosphate on each 3-PGA | ATP | (blank) |
| donates a pair of electrons yielding a high-energy food, G3P. | NADPH | (blank) |
| Only one G3P exits, the other five are used to | regenerate starting RuBP. | (blank) |
| Carbon fixation has to do with | Calvin Cycle | (blank) |
| Six-carbon product unstable; splits into two three-carbon products (3-PGA). | Calvin Cycle | (blank) |
| ATP places a phosphate on each 3-PGA, and NADPH donates a pair of electrons yielding a high-energy food, G3P | Calvin Cycle | (blank) |
| Only one G3P exits, the other five are used to regenerate starting RuBP. | Calvin Cycle | (blank) |
| Photorespiration occurs when? | warm weather when stomata close to prevent water evaporating, O2 from light-dependent stage builds up. | (blank) |
| photorespiration is ________ | Unproductive | (blank) |
| why is photorespiration unproductive? | no G3P made. | (blank) |
| Warm Climate Adaptation in plants | C4 Plants | (blank) |
| what are the Three Modes of Photosynthesis | C3, C4, & CAM | (blank) |
| Different enzyme in mesophyll cells binds only | CO2 | (blank) |
| CAM Plants Are Adapted to | Hot Climates | (blank) |
| CAM plants _____ stomata during the day, ______ at night. | close, open | (blank) |
| C4 metabolism starts when? how? | at night, by fixing CO2 | (blank) |
| what does C4 metabolism do during the day? | uses abundant ATP to finish. | (blank) |
| Cactus, pineapple, mint, and orchid. | CAM plants | (blank) |
| Most plants use this type of photosynthesis | C3 Plants | (blank) |
| Photorespiration | process that consumes O2 and releases CO2 in the presence of light | (blank) |
| Problem with photorespiration in C3 plants | CO2: O2 ratio can cause RuBP to bind with oxygen to produce phosphoglycolate and PGA instead of 2 PGA | (blank) |
| 4 carbon molecule instead of 3 carbon molecule. | C4 Plants | (blank) |
| how do C4 plants overcome Overcomes CO2: O2 ratio problem? | by sending CO2 to bundle sheath cells where Calvin Cycle is completed. | (blank) |
| Metabolic cost to fix 1CO2 in C4 plants? | 5 ATP’s | (blank) |
| Metabolic cost to fix 1CO2 in C3 plants? | 3 ATP’s | (blank) |
| photorespire more Co2 | C3 | (blank) |
| The complete collection of an organism’s genetic information as linked genes in a long strand of DNA. | Genome | (blank) |
| Information is held in letters ______________in the double helix. | A, C, G, and T | (blank) |
| how many genes do humans have? | 27,000 to 40,000 genes | (blank) |
| genes have all the information to: | make all the proteins (especially enzymes) a cell needs. | (blank) |
| 2 handrails of DNA made of? | sugar and phosphate | (blank) |
| Duplication of both cytoplasmic and nuclear contents precedes division, so that | new cells have a complete set of everything. | (blank) |
| DNA Is Packaged in | Chromosomes | (blank) |
| Each DNA strand is wrapped around | chromatin | (blank) |
| One strand of DNA condenses down into a single chromosome during | cell division. | (blank) |
| Chromosomes Duplicated during Replication | called sister chromatids | (blank) |
| sister chromatids are? | Two identical copies | (blank) |
| At cell division, the sister chromatids | separated, one to each new cell. | (blank) |
| Each species has a distinct number of? | chromosomes | (blank) |
| Many eukaryotes have a backup of | homologous chromosomes | (blank) |
| Humans have ___total chromosomes | 46 | (blank) |
| Sex chromosomes | Humans and other mammals use chromosomes to distinguish between the sexes. Males have one X and one Y. Females have two Xs. | (blank) |
| XX | female | (blank) |
| Xy | male | (blank) |
| The cell cycle is made up of | phases—interphase and mitotic phase | (blank) |
| how long does the Cell Cycle last? | Lasts about 24 hours in a typical animal cell cycle. | (blank) |
| Cancer | Mechanisms that induce cell division can become hyperactive; or those that suppress cell division can fail, leading to unrestrained cell growth | (blank) |
| cause of cancer | Normal genes that induce cell division are mutated. | (blank) |
| Oncogenes | stuck accelerator. | (blank) |
| Tumor suppressor genes | failed brakes. | (blank) |
| Defective proteins cause? | affects the oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, and leads to cancer. | (blank) |
| Diploid cells have: | two copies (2n) of each chromosome. | (blank) |
| Homologues are not identical, but | variants of each other. | (blank) |
| Diversity is also created in an additional two ways during meiosis | Recombination, and Independent assortment | (blank) |
| Recombination (synapsis) | shuffles genes on chromosomes in new order | (blank) |
| Independent assortment | makes sure that no two gametes are ever identical | (blank) |
| Alignment of homologous pairs of chromosomes on the metaphase plate is | random. | (blank) |
| sperm | DNA, flagellum, mitochondria, few other organelles | (blank) |
| egg | viable eggs loaded with nutrients and much larger than sperm, oogonia are all in large numbers up to 7th month before birth. | (blank) |
| Mitosis makes | an exact copy of somatic cells | (blank) |
| Gregor Mendel | Father of Genetics | (blank) |
| Basic units of genetics are | material elements that come in pairs. | (blank) |
| Elements do not | change, even over many generations. | (blank) |
| Pairs separate during | the formation of gametes. | (blank) |
| Phenotype | is the physical function, bodily feature, or behavior. | (blank) |
| Genotype | the underlying genes that determine the phenotype | (blank) |
| Monohybrid Cross | Segregation of Alleles | (blank) |
| how to do a monohybrid cross | punnett square | (blank) |
| Starting generation of test is called | P for parental generation. | (blank) |
| Offspring called | F1 for first filial generation | (blank) |
| all showing dominant traits | heterozygous | (blank) |
| Mendel’s First Law | Segregation of Alleles | (blank) |
| varients blend when bred | False | (blank) |
| varieties are called | alleles | (blank) |
| If sample size is large enough, you will see a ____ration of dominet to recesive | 3:1 | (blank) |
| Homozygous | two identical alleles | (blank) |
| Heterozygous | two different alleles | (blank) |
| Dihybrid Cross | when 4 different letters are crosed with 4 different letters | (blank) |
| monohybrid cross | when 2 different letters are crossed with 2 different letters | (blank) |
| Heterozygote | an intermediate between either homozygous phenotype. | (blank) |
| Codominance | Two alleles of a given gene have different phenotypic effects, with both effects manifesting in organisms that are heterozygous for the gene. | (blank) |
| No one person can have more than 2 alleles for a given gene. | true | (blank) |
| Polygenic inheritance | Traits are governed by many genes rather than one…interaction of multiple genes, each having an additive effect on the trait | (blank) |
| most traits are | Polygenic inheritance | (blank) |
| X-Linked Recessive Disorders | Color Blindness, women cant get them | (blank) |
| Autosomal Recessive Disorders | Sickle Cell Anemia, requires child to inherit 2 alleles | (blank) |
| Autosomal Dominant Disorder | Huntington’s Disease Chance of being affected from afflicted parent is 50%. | (blank) |
| Polyploidy | greater than diploid or more sets have been added to the genome of the diploid organism – Plants tolerate polyploidy, animals don’t | (blank) |
| Aneuploidy | one chromosome too many or one too few. | (blank) |
| Abnormal Chromosome Count | Meiosis gone wrong | (blank) |
| Technique to Elucidate Structure of DNA | X-ray crystallography, | (blank) |
| DNA Composed of the following three parts: | Five-carbon deoxyribose sugar, Phosphate group, Four types of nitrogen-containing bases | (blank) |
| Nucleotides joined by | covalent bonds between sugar and phosphate to make a chain | (blank) |
| Bases | carrying code for protein synthesis | (blank) |
| Two DNA strands are | antiparallel. | (blank) |
| Two DNA strands Held together by | base pairs | (blank) |
| base pairs: | Hydrogen bonds between the nitrogen-containing bases | (blank) |
| New helices are composed of | half old (original) and half new nucleotides. | (blank) |
| Process catalyzed by enzymes: | DNA polymerase , DNA ligase | (blank) |
| DNA ligase | permanently attaches short sections to make one chromosome. | (blank) |
| DNA polymerase | catalyzes addition of matching bases, and proofreads. | (blank) |
| Mutation = | permanent alteration in DNA base sequence. | (blank) |
| Two types of mutations | Point mutations, Chromosomal mutations | (blank) |
| Point mutations | change in chemical form of base, or incorrect base pairs | (blank) |
| Polypeptides | Strands of amino acids (20 different kinds) joined by peptide bonds. | (blank) |
| Every protein has an | unique amino acid sequence. | (blank) |
| How Proteins Are Made | Genetic Transcription, Translation, and Regulation | (blank) |
| Proteins function when | folded into 3-dimenshional | (blank) |
| RNA | ribose | (blank) |
| DNA | deoxyribose | (blank) |
| RNA has what base instead of T? | U | (blank) |
| RNA is | single-stranded | (blank) |
| Three Types of RNA | mRNA, rRNA , tRNA | (blank) |
| mRNA | carries instructions for sequence of amino acids in a protein. | (blank) |
| rRNA | important component of ribosomes. | (blank) |
| tRNA | involved in matching correct amino acid to specific instructions in mRNA. | (blank) |
| where does mRNA function? | nucleous and ribosomes | (blank) |
| where does rRNA function? | cytoplasm | (blank) |
| where does tRNA function? | cytoplasm | (blank) |
| Transcription Uses | Base Pairing | (blank) |
| Stage 1: | Transcription | (blank) |
| DNA used as a template to | to match complementary bases. | (blank) |
| single strand of RNA | transcript | (blank) |
| Only 1.5% of our DNA codes for | proteins | (blank) |
| noncoding DNA | housekeeping (regulatory) sequences, tips of chromosomes, and “junk”: | (blank) |
| Introns= | Parts that are cut out before translation | (blank) |
| Triplet code | three nucleotides signifying one amino acid. | (blank) |
| codon | three nucleotides | (blank) |
| Redundant = | several different codons signify the same amino acid. | (blank) |
| Codon Table Carries | instruction codons for stopping (UGA, UAA, UAG) and starting (AUG) translation. | (blank) |
| Stage 2 | Translation | (blank) |
| Universal thru out all Eukaryotic organisms | codon table | (blank) |
| In translation, mRNA: | carries the instructions in the codons for each of the amino acids (the words/code). | (blank) |
| anticodon | other end has three nucleotides | (blank) |
| In translation, tRNA: | can match the appropriate amino acid with the codon in the mRNA. | (blank) |
| a base pair consists of | codon & anticodon | (blank) |
| The Location of Protein Synthesis | Ribosomes | (blank) |
| A site | binds tRNA-carrying amino acids | (blank) |
| P site | binds tRNA attached to growing chain of polypeptides. | (blank) |
| E site | tRNA bears no amino acid…ejected from ribosome | (blank) |
| Gene | segment of DNA that brings about the transcription of a segment of RNA | (blank) |
| A deletion of a base will cause | a shift in the reading frame | (blank) |
| Triplet code | three nucleotides signifying one amino acid. | (blank) |
| Transgenic biotechnology | splicing of DNA from one species to another | (blank) |
| Reproductive cloning | production of mammals | (blank) |
| Forensic biotechnology | DNA fingerprinting | (blank) |
| Personalized medicine | medical treatments tailored to individual genetic makeup. | (blank) |
| Transgenic Biotechnology | Splicing of DNA from one species to another. | (blank) |
| Restriction enzymes are | the critical component that makes transgenic biotechnology feasible. | (blank) |
| cut DNA into desired fragments. | Restriction enzymes | (blank) |
| Clipped DNA fragment combines with | complementary base pairs. | (blank) |
| Plasmids | small DNA units that lie outside the bacterial chromosome. | (blank) |
| Bacteria take up DNA from surroundings using | Plasmids | (blank) |
| Recombinant DNA | 2 or more segments of DNA that have been combined by humans into a sequence that does not normally exist in nature. | (blank) |
| step 1Cloning process | Grab donor cell and grow and divide in culture. | (blank) |
| step 2 Cloning process | Grab an egg cell from another animal of same species and remove all DNA material. | (blank) |
| step 3 Cloning process | Join DNA and egg via electric current application to cell. | (blank) |
| step 4 Cloning process | Implant cell into surrogate mother. | (blank) |
| Repeats called | Short Tandem Repeat (STR) | (blank) |
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