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Micro chpts 27-31
Micro chapters 27,28,29,31
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Define: sterilization | The killing or removal of all viable organisms within a growth medium |
| Define: commercial sterilization | The sufficient heat treatment to kill endospores of Clostridium botulinum in canned foods. |
| Define:decontamination | The treatment of an object to make it safe to handle |
| Define:disinfection | Directly targets the removal of all pathogens, not necessarily all microbes |
| Define: antisepsis | Destruction of vegetative pathogens on living tissue. Treatment typically by chemical antimicrobials |
| Define: degerming | Removal of microbes from a limited area, such as the skin around an injection site.Treatment mostly a mechanical removal by an alcohol-soaked swab. |
| Know the three main methods to achieve sterilization. | Heat sterilization= the most widely used method of controlling microbial growth/High temperatures denature macromolecules Autoclave - is a sealed heating device that uses steam under pressure/Allows temperature of water to get above 100°C/Not the pressur |
| CONT'D- Know the three main methods to achieve sterilization. | in an autoclave that kills things, but the high temperature Pasteurization is the process of using precisely controlled heat to reduce the microbial load in heat- sensitive liquids/Doesn’t kill all organisms so it is different than sterilization |
| Understand what happens in a bacterial population when treated with heat or an antimicrobial chemical (the rate of microbial death). | When bacterial population are heated or treated w/ antimicrobial chemical, they usually die at a constant rate. The # of Microbes= The more microbes there are to begin with, the longer it takes to eliminate the entire population. Time of Exposure=Chemic |
| CONT'D Understand what happens in a bacterial population when treated with heat or an antimicrobial chemical (the rate of microbial death). | antimicrobials often require extended exposure to affect more-resistant microbes or endospores. Microbial Characteristics= Presence of endospores, cell walls, characteristics of their porins, etc… |
| Know how radiation sterilization and filter sterilization work and when these techniques would be more appropriately used. | Microwaves, UV, X-rays, gamma rays, and electrons can all reduce microbial growth UV has sufficient energy to cause modifications and breaks in DNA UV is useful in decontamination of surfaces- Radiation is used for sterilization in the medical field and |
| CONT'D Know how radiation sterilization and filter sterilization work and when these techniques would be more appropriately used. | food industry Cannot penetrate solid, opaque, or light-absorbing surfaces and filter sterilization- Filtration avoids the use of heat for sterilization of sensitive liquids and gasses Pores of filter are too small for organisms to pass through Pores |
| CONT'D Know how radiation sterilization and filter sterilization work and when these techniques would be more appropriately used. | Pores are large enough to allow liquid or gas to pass through Depth Filters HEPA filters Membrane Filters=Function more like a sieve (i.e., Nucleopore filters) |
| Define: bacteriostatic | agents that inhibit bacterial growth. These are typically inhibitors of protein synthesis and act by binding to ribosomes. If the concentration of the agent is lowered, the agent is release form the ribosome and growth is resumed. |
| Define:bacteriocidal | agents that kill bacteria. These agents tend to bind tightly to their cellular targets and are not removed y dilution, thus killing the cell. The dead cells, however, are not destroyed, and the total cell numbers remain constant. |
| Define:bacteriolytic | agents that kill bacteria by lysis. The lysis decreases the cell number and also the culture turbidity. This includes agents such as penicillin and detergents |
| Understand the terminology: zone of inhibition | the ring of bacterial death found in a disk diffusion assay |
| Understand the terminology:minimal inhibitory concentration | is the smallest amount of an agent needed to inhibit growth of a microbe Varies with the test organism used, inoculum size, temp, pH, etc. |
| Know and understand the five different mechanisms in which antimicrobial drugs act as one of the agents defined in learning goal # 6. | 1. Inhibition of cell wall synthesis. 2. Inhibition of protein synthesis. 3. Inhibition of nucleic acid replication and transcription. 4. Injury to the plasma membrane. 5. Inhibition of synthesis of essential metabolites. |
| Define antibiotic | are naturally produced antimicrobial agents |
| understand the difference between broad spectrum and narrow spectrum antibiotics (antimicrobial drugs). | broad spectrum antibiotics= affect a broad range of gram-pos or gram-negative bacteria. narrow spectrum antibiotics= antibiotics have a narrow range of different microbe types they affect.(Pcn G for ex affects gram+ bacteria but very few gram- bacteria) |
| Know why there was the need to develop semi-synthetic penicillins and then eventually beta-lactam inhibitors (clavulanic acid). | Due to a plasmid-borne gene for b-lactamase= Semisynthetic pcns were developed to overcome bacteria that possessed the ability to cleave the b–lactame ring. Antibiotics resistant to this enzyme were developed such as methicillin.BUT, bacterial resistan |
| CONT'D Know why there was the need to develop semi-synthetic penicillins and then eventually beta-lactam inhibitors (clavulanic acid). | to these soon appeared. Thus these organisms were termed: methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Extended-spectrum pcns were developed Effective against many gram-negative bacteria as well as the gram-positive. Still not resistant to |
| CONT'D Know why there was the need to develop semi-synthetic penicillins and then eventually beta-lactam inhibitors (clavulanic acid). | penicillinases. Pcns Plus b-lactamase inhibitors. Potassium clavulanate (clavulanic acid) is a noncompetitive inhibitor of penicillinase. Augmentin = amoxicillin + clavulanic acid |
| Penicillin V | Class-Natural Penicillins Mode of Action-Inhibition of Cell Wall Synthesis Comments-Gram +, oral |
| Ampicillin | Class-Synthetic Penicillins Mode of Action-Inhibition of Cell Wall Synthesis Comments-Broad spectrum |
| Amoxicillin | Class-Synthetic Penicillins Mode of Action-Inhibition of Cell Wall Synthesis Comments-Broad spectrum |
| Cefixime | Class-Cephalosporins Mode of Action-Inhibition of Cell Wall Synthesis Comments-3rd gen., oral |
| Isoniazid (INH) | Class-Antimycobacterial Mode of Action-Inhibition of Cell Wall Synthesis Comments-Inhibits syn. of mycolic acids |
| Streptomycin | Class-Aminoglycosides Mode of Action-Inhibition of Protein Synthesis (30S subunit of ribosome) Comments-Broad spectrum |
| Neomycin | Class-Aminoglycosides Mode of Action-Inhibition of Protein Synthesis (30S subunit of ribosome) Comments-Topical use |
| Tetracycline | Class-Tetracyclines Mode of Action-Inhibition of Protein Synthesis (30S subunit of ribosome) Comments-Broad spectrum |
| Erythromycin | Class-Macrolides Mode of Action-Inhibition of Protein Synthesis (50S subunit of ribosome) Comments-Gram +, penicillin alternative |
| Azithromycin | Class-Macrolides Mode of Action-Inhibition of Protein Synthesis (50S subunit of ribosome) Comments-Synthetic, broader spectrum |
| Chloramphenicol | Class-N/A Mode of Action-Inhibition of Protein Synthesis (50S subunit of ribosome) Comments-Broad spectrum |
| Polymyxin B | Class-N/A Mode of Action-Injury to the Plasma Membrane Comments-Topical use, Gram - |
| Rifampin | Class-Rifamycins Mode of Action-Inhibitors of Nucleic Acid Synth. Comments-Blocks RNA Synthesis |
| Ciprofloxin | Class-Quinolones Mode of Action-Inhibitors of Nucleic Acid Synth. Comments-Blocks DNA Synthesis |
| Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole | Class-Sulfonamides Mode of Action-Metabolism Inhibitors Comments-Broad spectrum |
| Miconazole & ketoconazole | Class-Azoles Mode of Action-Ergosterol Synthesis Comments-Antifungal, topical |
| Fluconazole | Class-Azoles Mode of Action-Ergosterol Synthesis Comments-Antifungal, oral |
| Acyclovir | Class-N/A Mode of Action-DNA synthesis Inhibitor Comments-Antiviral |
| Know and understand the ways in which bacteria can become resistant to antimicrobial agents. Specifically how are they able to adapt to the drug? | Almost all pathogenic microbes have acquired resistance to some chemotherapeutic agents A few pathogens have developed resistance to all known antimicrobial agents Methicillin-resistant S. Aureus (MRSA) Resistance can be minimized by using antibiotics |
| CONT'D- Know and understand the ways in which bacteria can become resistant to antimicrobial agents. Specifically how are they able to adapt to the drug? | correctly and only when needed Resistance to a certain antibiotic can be lost if antibiotic is not used for several years |
| Know how the bacterial resistance plasmids are being selected for in the population today, and thus what can be done to minimize antibiotic resistance. | The use of antibiotics in medicine, veterinary, and agriculture select for the spread of R plasmids Many examples of overuse of antibiotics Used far more often than necessary (i.e., antibiotics used in agriculture as supplements to animal feed) |
| Innate immunity is divided into the first line and second line of defense. Know the physical, chemical, and microbiota components of the first line of defense. | Physical barrier= skin and mucus membrane(of the gut and airways)-Silvia washes microorganisms from gum/teeth mucus traps many microorganisms that enter the resp./gastro. urine flow moves microorganisms out of urinary tract/ Chemical=anti-microbial |
| CONT'D- Innate immunity is divided into the first line and second line of defense. Know the physical, chemical, and microbiota components of the first line of defense. | molecules (eg. lysozyme) that restrict the infection. microbiota components=Normal microbiota change the environment, which can prevent the growth of pathogens. |
| Define: pathogen | A disease causing microorganism. |
| Define:pathogenicity | The ability of a pathogen to cause disease (to inflict damage on the host) |
| Define:opportunistic pathogen | Causes disease only in the absence of normal host resistance. |
| Define:virulence | The degree of pathogenicity produced by a pathogen. (The quantitative measure of pathogenicity.) |
| Define:infection | A situation in which a microbe is established and growing in a host, whether or not the host is harmed Primary Infect. – Acute infect. that causes the initial illness. Secondary Infect. – An infect. caused by an opportunistic microbe after a primary |
| CONT'D Define:infection | infection has weakened the host’s defenses |
| Define:nosocomial infection | an infection that develops during the course of a hospital stay ad was not present at the time the patient was admitted |
| Define:disease | Damage or injury to the host that impairs host function |
| In reference to the terms pathogenicity and virulence, an organism may be defined as pathogenic or not. If defined as pathogenic, depending upon the conditions may exhibit different levels of virulence.KNOW this terminology and why this is the case. | Pathogens use various strategies to establish virulence Virulence is the relative ability of a pathogen to cause disease |
| Understand the mechanism in which disease can spread – the modes of transmission. | Contact Transmission,Vehicle Transmission, AND Vector transmission |
| 3 Contact Transmissions | 1.Direction contact transmission (person-to-person) is the direct transmission of an agent by physical contact between its source and a susceptible host. (touching, kissing, sexual intercourse) 2.Indirect contact transmission occurs when the agent is |
| CONT'D- 3 Contact Transmissions | transmit.from its reservoir to a susceptible host by means of a nonliving object. (handkerchiefs, toys, money, cups) 3.Droplet transmission is when microbes are spread in mucus droplets that travel only short distances. (coughing, sneezing) |
| What is Vehicle Transmission | is the transmission of disease agents by a medium, such as food, water, or blood. |
| What is Vector transmission | Mechanical – passive transport of the pathogen by the insect’s feet /other body parts. Biological – pathogen reproduces inside the vector. Can be passed in the saliva and injected during a bite. In some cases the arthropod defecates or vomits while |
| CONT'D- What is Vector transmission | biting a potential host, thus transmitting the pathogen. |
| Understand the three mechanisms by which pathogens can gain entry into the body (portals of entry). Which of these is the most common? Why? | Mucous membranes Skin Parenteral route The mucous membrane is most common- because it is the most common/favorable portal of entry. |
| Know what is meant by “preferred portal of entry”, and how this may affect virulence. | preferred portal of entry that is a prerequisite to their being able to cause disease. |
| Understand the mechanism of pathogenic adherence. (e.g. what interactions occur between the host cell and the pathogen) What types of bacterial structure or molecules are responsible for this interaction? | Bacteria and viruses that initiate infection often adhere specifically to epithelial cells through macromolecular interactions on the surfaces of the pathogen and the host cell Bacterial adherence can be facilitated by adhesins on the extracellular |
| CONT'D- Understand the mechanism of pathogenic adherence. (e.g. what interactions occur between the host cell and the pathogen) What types of bacterial structure or molecules are responsible for this interaction? | surface of the bacterial cell -These adhesins bind to receptors on host cells -Adhesins may be located on the glycocalyx (capsule/slime layer) or on other microbial surface structures such as pili, fimbriae, and flagella. |
| Define ID50 and LD50 and understand how portal of entry and virulence can affect these. | LD50 (lethal dose50)- The dose of an agent that kills 50% of the animals in a test group Infectious dose ID50 is the dose of an agent required to infect 50% of the test population |
| Define: toxin | Any poisonous substance produced by a microorganism that contributes to pathogenicity. |
| Define:toxigenicity | The capacity of a microorganism to produce a toxin. |
| Define:toxemia | Presence of toxins in the host's blood. |
| Define:toxoid | Inactivated toxin (often used in a vaccine) |
| Define:antitoxin | A specific antibody against a specific bacterial exotoxin or its toxoid. |
| What are endotoxins? | are part of the outer portion of the cell wall (lipid A) of most gram-negative bacteria that are released on destruction of the cell. Thus, endotoxins are lipopolysaccharides, whereas exotoxins are proteins. Generally less toxic than exotoxins |
| What are exotoxins? | are protein toxins released from living bacterial cells as they grow The toxins are produced inside the bacteria as part of their growth and metabolism. They are secreted by the bacterium into the surrounding medium or released by lysis. |
| What are three categories of exotoxins? | 1.Cytolytic toxins 2. AB toxins 3.Superantigen toxins |
| Cytolytic toxins | Work by degrading cytoplasmic membrane integrity, causing cell lysis and death These toxins are called hemolysins |
| AB toxins | Consist of two subunits, A and B Work by binding to host cell receptor (B subunit) and transfer ring damaging agent (A subunit) across the cell membrane. -The A part is the active enzyme component. -The B part is the binding component |
| Superantigen toxins | Work by stimulating lg #'s of immune cells T cells release enormous amts of cytokines High amts of cytokines in the blood can cause fever, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and sometimes shock and even death. Result in extensive inflammation and tissue damag |
| Define: immunity | The active ability of an organism to resist infection |
| Define: innate immunity | The body’s built-in ability to recognize and destroy pathogens or their products |
| Define: adaptive immunity | The acquired ability to recognize and destroy a pathogen and its products Activated by exposure of the immune system to the pathogen |
| What are the physical factors of the first line of defense? | Skin Mucous Membranes Ciliary escalator Lacrimal apparatus Saliva Epiglottis Flow of urine Vaginal secretions Peristalsis, defecation, an vomiting |
| know the function of the ciliary escalator. | Cells in the lower resp. tract are covered with cilia. By moving synchronously, these cilia propel inhaled dust and microorganisms trapped in the mucus upward. This is referred to as the ciliary escalator, as microbes are transported away from the lungs |
| Know the components of the lymphatic system | The lymphatic system consists of: a fluid called lymph vessels called lymphatic vessels structures and organs known as lymphoid tissue Thymus Spleen Lymph nodes MALT red bone marrow. |
| Know the lymphatic system function in the body. | The lymphatic system is a separate circulatory system that drains lymph fluid from extravascular tissues a. Lymph nodes contain high concentrations of lymphocytes and phagocytes |
| Understand lymph circulation and how it differs from that of the blood | The movement of lymph through lymphatic vessels is slow (3 liters/day) compared to blood flow (about 5 liters/minutes). Lymph does not circulate like blood, but moves in one direction. There are no lymphatic pumps. Lymph is propelled forward by: - |
| CONT'D-Understand lymph circulation and how it differs from that of the blood | Lymph is propelled forward by: -the action of the nearby skeletal muscles -the contraction of the smooth muscle fibers in the walls of the lymphatic vessels. -Valves in the lymphatic vessels prevent the backward movement of lymph. |
| CONT'D-Understand lymph circulation and how it differs from that of the blood | Blood is pumped through arteries and capillaries and returns from the body through veins |
| Know each of the formed elements of the blood found in the second line of defense | phagocytes (granulocytes=neutrophils, eosinophils,basophils; monocytes= dendritic cells,macrophages) |
| Know each function of the formed elements of the blood found in the second line of defense and their function | monocytes=are precursors of macrophages/Large cells found in tissues such as lymph nodes and spleen dendritic cells= function in phagocytosis and antigen presentation When they ingest antigen they move to the lymph node to present antigen to T cells |
| CONT'D- Know each function of the formed elements of the blood found in the second line of defense and their function | macrophages=a phagocyte granulocytes=contain toxins or enzymes that are released to kill target cells neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils neutrophils=Phagocytosis eosinophils=Attack and destroy large eukaryotic pathogens Also involved in inflam |
| CONT'D- Know each function of the formed elements of the blood found in the second line of defense and their function | -mmation and allergic reactions=Kill parasites- Basophiles=Production of histamine-Parallel eosinophils in many actions |
| Define: Phagocyte | A cell that engulfs and destroy pathogens |
| Define:Phagocytosis | process in which phagocytes engulf and digest microorganisms and cellular debris; an important defense against infection |
| Understand the process of inflammation in the body and its purpose. | Inflammation is a nonspecific rxn to noxious stimuli Molecular mediators of inflammation are proteins called cytokines and chemokines = serve to activate complement and promote vasodilatation. Effective inflammatory response isolates and limits tissue |
| CONT'D- Understand the process of inflammation in the body and its purpose. | damage, destroying damaged cells and pathogens Inflammation can result in considerable damage to healthy tissue |
| What are the signs of inflammation? | Redness Swelling (edema) Pain Heat |
| What are the chemicals released during the inflammatory process and what effect do each of these chemicals have? | Neutrophils are the first to arrive at scene of infection= Attracted to site by interleukins Activated neutrophils release chemokines to recruit macrophages by guiding them along a chemokine gradient Usual outcome of inflammation is a rapid |
| CONT'D- What are the chemicals released during the inflammatory process and what effect do each of these chemicals have? | localization and destruction of pathogen In some cases inflammation fails to localize pathogen and the reaction becomes widespread Can lead to septic shock, a life-threatening condition |
| Define: cell-mediated immunity | is an immune response that involves T cells binding to antigens presented on antigen-presenting cells. It leads to killing of pathogen-infected cells through recognition of pathogen antigens found on infected host cells |
| Define: antibody-mediated immunity | is an immune response produced by antibodies dissolved in body fluids. It is effective against extracellular pathogens such as bacteria and soluble pathogen products. |
| Define: antigen | A substance that causes the body to produce specific antibodies or sensitized T cells. |
| Define:haptogen (hapten) | is a substance of low molecular weight that does not cause the formation of antibodies by itself but does so when combined with a carrier molecule. |
| Define:Epitope | antigenic determinants. |
| Define:Specificity | of antigen-antibody is dependent on lymphocyte cell receptors interacting with individual pathogen |
| Define:Tolerance | the acquired inability to make an adaptive immune response to one’s own antigens Discrimination between foreign and host antigens |
| CONT'D-Know the structure of an antibody molecule, how it is held together, where the antigen binds. In addition, know the difference between the variable region, the constant region, and the Fc region of the antibody. | Each antibody molecule has four protein chains: two light chains and two heavy chains. The chains are joined by disulfide links. The chains form a flexible Y-shaped molecule. |
| CONT'D-Know the structure of an antibody molecule, how it is held together, where the antigen binds. In addition, know the difference between the variable region, the constant region, and the Fc region of the antibody. | The heavy chains of a given antibody define its class based on amino acid sequence Ends of the Y arms are called the variable (V) regions. They function to bind to the epitope of the antigens. |
| CONT'D- Know the structure of an antibody molecule, how it is held together, where the antigen binds. In addition, know the difference between the variable region, the constant region, and the Fc region of the antibody. | The stem of the antibody and the lower part of the arms are called the constant (C) regions. They are the same for a particular class of immunoglobulin. The stem is called the Fc region because when Ab structure was first being identified, it was a |
| CONT'D Know the structure of an antibody molecule, how it is held together, where the antigen binds. In addition, know the difference between the variable region, the constant region, and the Fc region of the antibody. | fragment (F) that crystallized (c) in cold storage. |
| five classes of antibodies | a. IgG b. IgM c. IgA d. IgD e. IgE |
| IgG Antibodies | Accounts for 80% of serum antibodies In blood, lymph, and intestine Cross placenta Trigger complement Enhance phagocytosis; neutralize toxins and viruses; protects fetus and newborn Half-life = 23 days |
| IgM Antibodies | Structured as a pentamer of Igs Accounts for 5–10% of serum antibodies In blood, in lymph, and on B cells Triggers complement Agglutinates microbes; first Ab produced in response to infection Half-life = 5 days |
| IgA Antibodies | Structured as a dimer of Igs Accounts for 10–15% of serum antibodies In secretions Mucosal protection Half-life = 6 days |
| IgD Antibodies | Accounts for 0.2% of serum antibodies In blood, in lymph, and on B cells Half-life = 3 days |
| IgE Antibodies | Monomer 0.002% of serum Abs On mast cells, on basophils, and in blood Allergic reactions; parasitic infections Half-life = 2 days |
| Understand the various mechanisms by which antibodies elicit their effects on foreign cells or pathogens. (e.g. agglutination, opsonization, activation of complement, etc…) | When an antibody encounters an antigen for which it is specific, an antigen-antibody complex will rapidly form. The strength of the bond between an antigen and an antibody is called affinity. The binding of an antibody to an antigen iS |
| CONT'D- Understand the various mechanisms by which antibodies elicit their effects on foreign cells or pathogens. (e.g. agglutination, opsonization, activation of complement, etc…) | not damaging to the antigen directly. It tags the foreign cells and molecules for destruction by phagocytes and complement. |
| CONT'D- Understand the various mechanisms by which antibodies elicit their effects on foreign cells or pathogens. (e.g. agglutination, opsonization, activation of complement, etc…) | These mechanisms include: Agglutination Opsonization Antibody-dependent cell-mediated immunity Neutralization Activation of the complement system |
| Understand the function of each of the following: antigen presenting cell, T-cell receptor, MHC, TH cell. | An antigen presenting cell encounters and ingests a microorganism. The antigen is enzymatically digested into short peptides, which combine with MHC and are displayed on the surface of the APC. |
| CONT'D- Understand the function of each of the following: antigen presenting cell, T-cell receptor, MHC, TH cell. | The MHC/antigen complex can then interact with the TCR on a helper T cell. This stimulates secretion of cytokines from the TH cell. Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) Initially identified as being responsible for |
| CONT'D- Understand the function of each of the following: antigen presenting cell, T-cell receptor, MHC, TH cell. | immune- mediated organ transplant rejection Now know they function as antigen-presenting molecules Class I MHC on surface of all nucleated cells Class II MHC on B lymphocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells |
| Know the various types of T cells and their associated functions. | T cells develop from stem cells in the red bone marrow/mature in the thymus |
| CONT'D-Know the various types of T cells and their associated functions. | T helper cell (TH) – A specialized T cell that often interacts with an antigen before B cells interact with the antigen. T cytotoxic cells (TC) – A specialized T cell that destroys infected cells presenting antigens. |
| CONT'D-Know the various types of T cells and their associated functions. | TH are classified as CD4+ (MHCII) and TC are classified as CD8+ (MHCI). |
| CONT'D-Know the various types of T cells and their associated functions. | TH cells produce cytokines and differentiate into TH1 TH2 Memory cells |
| TH1 CELLS | produces IFN-g, which activates cells related to cell-mediated immunity, macrophages, and Abs Promotes phagocytosis Enhances the activity of complement Aides in the formation of CTLs Also play a role in inflammation and transplanted organ rejection |
| TH2 CELLS | produce cytokines that are associated with the activation of B cells thus resulting antibody production. They also activate eosinophils. |
| Understand the activation of cellular immunity (cell-mediated response). What are the end results of the activation for each type of cell? | T-cytotoxic cells (Tc) are T cells that directly kill cells that display surface foreign antigens Contact b/twn Tc cells and target cell is required for cell death On contact, granules in T cell migrate to contact site |
| CONT'D- Understand the activation of cellular immunity (cell-mediated response). What are the end results of the activation for each type of cell? | Degranulation occurs and causes pores (perforin) in target cell membrane Also contain granzymes that cause apoptosis Cells lacking antigen are not killed |
| Understand the difference in a primary response to an antigen and a secondary response (memory). | Antibody production begins with antigen exposure and culminates in the production and secretion of an antigen-specific antibody Antigen-stimulated B cells |
| CONT'D- Understand the difference in a primary response to an antigen and a secondary response (memory). | multiply and differentiate to form antibody-secreting plasma cells and memory cells (primary antibody response) Memory B cells generated may live for years and quickly transform into antibody-secreting cells (secondary antibody response) |
| Complement system: Know what comprises the complement system | Complement is composed of a group of over 30 sequentially interacting proteins |
| Complement system:Know the functions of complement in the immune system and how it accomplished this function. | Cause lysis of pathogens or mark them for recognition by phagocytes These proteins react in a defined sequence Complement lyses many gram-negative bacteria |
| The complement system functions to destroy microbes by: | Cytolysis Inflammation Phagocytosis and preventing excess damage to the host tissues |
| Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPs) | Structural components common to a particular group of infectious agents Include polysaccharides, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids Example the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of the gram-negative bacterial cell wall. |
| Pattern Recognition Molecules (PRMs) | A grp of soluble and membrane-bound host proteins that interact with PAMPs Found on surfaces of macrophages, monocytes, neutrophils, and dendritic cells Exs: Toll-like receptors (TLRs) Soluble PRM examples are the mannan-binding lectin/compl. proteins |
| The immunoglobulin gene superfamily members all have proteins structure consisting of constant domains and variable domains. Know the structure for each of these family members as well as the logic behind this structure. | Consists of a lg # of genes and their protein products that share structural, evolutionary, and functional features w/ immunoglobulin genes and proteins 3 diff cell surface protein interact directly w/ antigens during the adaptive immune response. |
| CONT'D- The immunoglobulin gene superfamily members all have proteins structure consisting of constant domains and variable domains. Know the structure for each of these family members as well as the logic behind this structure. | Immunoglobulins (Igs or antibodies) T cell receptors (TCRs) Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) |
| Know the characteristics of MHC importance to self | Play a critical role in the presentation of processed antigens to other components of the immune system. Referred to as the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) complex They are the major antigen barriers for tissue transplantation. |
| Know the characteristics of MHC structure | Most individuals have slightly different MHC proteins, In normal cells the MHC contain “self-peptides”; in cells infected with virus the MHC of those cells express some viral peptides and are targeted for destruction by T cells. |
| Know the characteristics of MHC classes | 2 structural classes Class I MHC proteins – found on the surface of all nucleated cells. Class II MHC proteins – found on the surface of APCs |
| Know why HLA typing is necessary and how the process works | a. HLA typing is used to identify and compare HLAs. b. Certain HLAs are related to an increased susceptibility to specific diseases. c. HLA typing is important for tissue typing before transplant surgery |
| Know the different type of transplantation therapy options available | Transplanted cornea=Transplants to privileged sites do not cause an immune response Stem cells may allow therapeutic cloning to avoid rejection Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent Adult stem cells have differentiated to form specific cells |
| CONT'D- Know the different type of transplantation therapy options available | Bone marrow transplants – stem cells for leukocytes, thus recipient can again generate their own cell-mediated immune response. Graft-versus-host disease can result from transplanted bone marrow that contains immunocompetent cells. Umbilical cord blood |
| Know the different types of grafting therapy options available | Autograft: Use of one's own tissue Isograft: Use of identical twin's tissue Allograft: Use of tissue from another person Xenotransplantation product: Use of nonhuman tissue Hyperacute rejection: Response to nonhuman Ag |
| Antibody variability is esp. apparent @ the CDRs. Antigen/antibody specificity is determined by the precise folding of the 4 polypeptide chains composing the antibody structure. Know the ways i/w the immune syst.cells are able to generate antibody divers | The immune system must be able to generate an almost unlimited antibody variation This must be done using a limited # of genes |
| Antibody variability is esp. apparent @ the CDRs. Antigen/antibody specificity is determined by the precise folding of the 4 polypeptide chains composing the antibody structure. Know the ways i/w the immune syst.cells are able to generate antibody divers | This ability to produce almost limitless antibody diversity is due to Somatic recombination Random heavy & light chain reassortment Coding for joint diversity Hypermutation |
| Understand the process of gene rearrangement in the Ig chains (remember that this is different for the heavy and the light chains). | The gene encoding each immunoglobulin is constructed from several immunoglobulin gene segments and each segment encodes a portion of the final gene (“genes in pieces ” hypothesis) |
| CONT'D- Understand the process of gene rearrangement in the Ig chains (remember that this is different for the heavy and the light chains). | Allelic exclusion – in each B cell, only one protein-producing rearrangement occurs in the heavy and light chain genes. This mechanism ensures that each B cell produces only one Ig. At least 1.92 million possible antibodies can be expressed! |
| Define: autoimmunity | The failure to develop tolerance may result in dangerous reactions to self antigens |
| Define: positive selection | T cells that recognize MHC peptides are retained |
| Define:negative selection | T cells that pass the positive selection and strongly bind to self-antigens are selected against |
| Define:clonal deletion | More than 99% of T cells that enter the thymus do not survive the selection process. Remaining T cells react strongly with foreign antigens |
| Understand the function of cytokines in the immune response | Intracellular communication in the immune system is accomplished in many cases by a heterogeneous family of proteins called cytokines a. Regulate cellular functions and activate various cell types b. Cytokines produced by lymphocytes are called |
| CONT'D-Understand the function of cytokines in the immune response | lymphokines or interleukins c. Interferons (IFN) and tumor necrosis factors (TNF) act on cells other than B and T lymphocytes |
| Understand the function of chemokines in the immune response. | d.Are a sm grp of proteins that function as chemoattractants for phagocytes and lymphocytes e.Produced by lymphocytes and other cells in response to bacterial products, |
| CONT'D-Understand the function of chemokines in the immune response. | viruses, or other pathogenic agents that cause cell damage f.About 40 chemokines are known |
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