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Biology 1301
Test 3 (chapters 9,10,12,13)
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Fermentation | Partial degradation of sugars that occurs WITHOUT OXYGEN. |
| Aerobic Respiration | CONSUMES organic molecules and oxygen and yield ATP. |
| Cellular Respiration | Includes BOTH aerobic & anaerobic respiration. |
| C6H1206+6O2--->6CO2+6H2O+Energy | Cellular Respiration |
| Redox Reactions | Chemical reactions that transfer electrons between reactants. |
| Cellular Respiration: C6H12O6 & 6CO2 | oxidized |
| Cellular Respiration: 6O2 & 6H2O | reduced |
| reducing agent | electron donor (gain) |
| oxidizing agent | electron receptor (lose) |
| Glycolysis, Citric Acid Cycle, Oxidative Phosphorylation | Cellular Respiration |
| Cellular Respiration: GLYCOLYSIS | breaks down glucose into two molecules of PYRUVATE |
| Cellular Respiration: CITRIC ACID CYCLE | completes the breakdown of glucose. |
| Cellular Respiration: OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION | accounts for most of the ATP synthesis. |
| Electrons from organic compounds are usually transferred to... | NAD+ (coenzyme) |
| As an electron acceptor, NAD+ functions as an _________ _______ during cellular respiration. | oxidizing agent |
| NADH | reduced form of NAD+ |
| NADH passes electrons to the _____ _____ ______. | electron transport chain |
| _____ pulls electrons down the chain in an energy-yielding tumble. | O2 (oxygen) |
| The energy yielded is used to regenerate ___. | ATP |
| The process that generates most of the ATP is called _____ ______ because it is powered by redox reactions. | oxidative phosphorylation |
| Oxidative phosphorylations accounts for almost 90% of the ____ generated bvy cellular respiration. | ATP |
| A smaller amount of ATP is formed in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle by _____-______ ___________. | substrate-level phosphorylation |
| "splitting of sugar" | Glycolysis |
| Glycolysis occurs in the ________. | cytoplasm |
| In the presence of O2 (oxygen), ________ enters the mitochondrion. | pyruvate |
| Before the citric acid cycle can begin, pyruvate must be converted to ______ _____, which links the cycle to glycolysis. | acetyl CoA |
| Krebs Cycle | Citric Acid Cycle |
| Citric Acid Cycle takes place within the ___________ ________. | mitochondrial matrix |
| Citric Acid Cycle: oxidized organic fuel derived from pyruvate, forming: __ ATP, __ NADH, and __ FADH2 per turn. | 1 ATP; 3 NADH, and 1 FADH2 |
| Citric Acid Cycle: acetyl CoA joins the cycle by combining with _______, forming citrate. | oxaloacetate |
| The NADH and FADH2 produced by the cycle relay electrons extracted from food to the _____ _____ ______. | electron transport chain. |
| Following glycosis and the citric acid cycle, ______ and ______ account for most of the energy extracted from food. | NADH and FADH2 |
| NADH and FADH2 donate electrons to the electrons transport chain, which powers _____ _____ via oxidative phosphorylation. | ATP synthesis |
| The electron transport chain is in the ______ of the mitonchondrion. | cristae |
| Most of the electron transport chain's components are _______, which exist in multiprotein complexes. | proteins |
| Electrons drop in free energy as they go down the chain and are finally passed to O2, forming ____. | H2O (water) |
| Electrons are transferred from NADH/FADH2 to the _____ _____ _____. | electron transport chain |
| Electrons are passed through a number of proteins, including ______. | cytochromes |
| The electron transport chain generates ___ ATP. | NO |
| What is the electron transport chain's function? | to break the large free-energy drop from food to O2 into smaller steps that releases energy in manageable amounts. |
| Electron transfer in the electron transport chain causes proteins to pump _____ from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space. | H+ |
| H+ moves back across the membrane, passing through channels in ____ _______. | ATP synthase |
| ATP synthase uses the exergonic flow of H+ to drive ____________ of ATP. | phosphorylation |
| Chemiosmosis | the use of energy in a H+ gradient to drive cellular work. |
| The energy stored in a H+ gradient across a membrane is used to synthesize ___. | ATP |
| The H+ gradient is referred to as a _____-_______ ______, emphasizing its capacity to do work. | proton-motive force |
| During cellular respiration most energy flows in this sequence: ______-->NADH-->_____ ______ ______-->proton-motive force-->____ | glucose; electron transport chain; ATP |
| Most cellular respiration requires ____ to produce ATP | O2 (oxygen) |
| Glycolysis can produce ATP with/without _____. | O2 (oxygen) |
| In the absence of O2, GLYCOLYSIS couples with ________ (anaerobic respiration) to produce ATP. | fermentation |
| Fermentation consists of glycolysis plus reactions that regenerate ____ which can be reused by glycolysis. | NAD+ |
| 2 common types of fermentation: | alcohol fermentation and lactic acid fermentation |
| Alcohol Fermentation | pyruvate is converted to ethanol in two steps, with the first releasing CO2. |
| Lactic Acid Fermentation | pyruvate is reduced to NADH, forming lactate as an end product, with no release of CO2. |
| Human muscle cells used ___ ___ ____ to generate ATP when O2 is scarce. | lactic acid fermentation |
| Cellular Respiration produces ___ ATP per glucose molecule. | 38 |
| Fermentation produces ___ ATP per glucose molecule. | 2 |
| Obligate Anaerobes | carry out fermentation and cannot survive in the presence of O2. |
| Facultative Anaerobes | can survive using either fermentation or cellular respiration. |
| Process that converts solar energy into chemical energy. | Photosynthesis |
| Autotrophs | PRODUCERS; sustain themselves without eating anything derived from other organisms. |
| Heterotrophs | CONSUMERS; obtain their organic material from other organisms. |
| Where do leaves get their green color from? | chlorophyll, the green pigment within chloroplasts |
| ___ enters and ____ exits the leaf through pores called _____. | CO2; O2; stomata. |
| Chloroplasts are found mainly in cells of the ______, the interior tissue of the leaf. | mesophyll |
| The chlorophyll is in the membrane of ______, which may be stacked in columns called _____. | thylakoids; grana |
| Chloroplasts also contain _____, a dense fluid. | stroma |
| 6CO2+12H2O+light energy-->C6H12O6+6O2+6H2O | Photosynthesis |
| Chloroplasts split ____ into hydrogen and oxygen, incorporating the electrons of hydrogen into sugar molecules. | H2O (water) |
| In photosynthesis, ___ is oxidized and ___ is reduced. | H2O is oxidized; CO2 is reduced |
| Light Reactions occur in the _____. | thylakoids |
| Light Reactions | split H2O, release O2, reduce NADP+ to NADPH, generate ATP from ADP by photophosphorylation. |
| Calvin Cycle occurs in the _____. | stroma |
| Calvin Cycle | begins with carbon fixation, incorporating CO2 into organic molecules. |
| chlorophyll a | violet-blue and red light work best for photosynthesis |
| chlorophyll b | accessory pigments |
| carotenoids | absorb excessive light that would otherwise damage chlorophyll |
| Photosystems consist of a ______-______ ______- (a type of protein complex) surrounded by light-harvesting complexes. | reaction-center complex |
| A ______ ______ ______ in the reaction center accepts an excited electron from chlorophyll a. | primary electron acceptor |
| Photosystem II (PS II) | functions first and is best at absorbing a wavelength of 680 nm. |
| Photosystem I (PS I) | best at absorbing a wavelength of 700 nm. |
| Chloroplasts and mitochondria generate ATP by ________, but use different sources of energy | chemiosmosis |
| In _________, protons are pumped to the intermembrane space and drive ATP synthesis as they diffuse back into the mitochondrial matrix. | mitochondria |
| In ________, protons are pumped into the thylakoid space and drive ATP synthesis as they diffuse back into the stroma. | chloroplasts |
| ___ and ____ are produced on the side facing the stroma, where the Calvin Cycle takes place. | ATP and NADPH |
| Carbon enters the cycle as _____ and leaves as a sugar named ___________-__-_________. | CO2; glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) |
| For net synthesis of 1 G3P, the cycle must take place ____ times, fixing 3 molecules of CO2. | three (3) |
| Calvin Cycle (3 phases) | Carbon Fixation; Reduction; Regeneration of the CO2 acceptor (RuBP). |
| The closing of stomata reduces the access of ____ and causes ____ to build up. | CO2; O2 |
| In most plants (C3 plants), initial fixation of CO2, via ______, forms a three-carbon compound. | rubisco |
| In ____________, rubisco adds O2 instead of ______ in the Calvin cycle. | photorespiration |
| Photorespiration consumes ___ and organic fuel and releases ____ without producing ATP or sugar. | O2; CO2 |
| C4 plants minimize photorespiration by incorporating CO2 into four-carbon compounds in ______ ____. | mesophyll cells |
| C4 plants requires the enzyme ___ ________-. | PEP carboxylase |
| PEP carboxylase has a higher affinity for ____ than rubisco does. | CO2 |
| These four-carbon compounds are exported to _____-____ ____ where they release CO2 that is then used in the Calvin Cycle. | bundle-sheath cells |
| CAM Plants | open their stomata at night, incorporating CO2 into organic acids. |
| CAM Plants; stomata close during the day, and ____ is released from organic acids and used in the Calvin Cycle. | CO2 |
| All the DNA in a cell constitutes the cell's ____. | genome |
| DNA molecules in a cell are packaged into ____. | chromosomes |
| Somatic Cell (nonreproductive cells) | have two sets of chromosomes (46) |
| Gametes (reproductive cells: sperm and egg) | have half as many chromosomes (23). |
| Chromatin | a complex of DNA and protein that condenses during cell division. |
| In preparation for cell division... | DNA is replicated and the chromosomes condense. |
| Each duplicated chromosome has 2 _____ _____, which separate during cell division. | sister chromatids |
| The ________ is the narrow "waist" of the duplicated chromosome, where the 2 chromatids are most closely attached. | centromere |
| Mitosis | the division of the nucleus |
| Cytokinesis | the division of the cytoplasm |
| Gametes are produced by a variation of cell division called: | meiosis |
| Meiosis yields _____-________ daughter cells that have only ____ set of chromosomes. | non-identical; 1 (one) |
| Mitotic (M) Phase | mitosis & cytokinesis |
| Interphase | cell growth and copying of chromosomes in preparation for cell division. |
| Interphase (about 90% of the cell cycle) can be divided into subphases: | G1 phase (first gap), S phase (synthesis), G2 (second gap) ... the cell grows during all 3 phases, but chromosomes are duplicated ONLY during the S phase. |
| Mitosis (divided into 5 phases) | Phrophase; Prometaphase; Metaphase; Anaphase; Telophase (cytokinesis) |
| Mitotic Spindle | an apparatus of microtubules that controls chromosome movement during mitosis. |
| During ______, assembly of spindle microtubules begins in the _______, the microtubule organizing center. | prophase; centrosome |
| The centrosome replicates, forming ___ chromosomes that migrate to opposing ends of the cell, as spindle microtubules grow out from them. | two (2) |
| aster | a radial array of short microtubules...extends from each centrosome. |
| During _________, some spindle microtubules attach to the _______ of chromosomes and begin to move the chromosomes. | prometaphase; kinetochores |
| At ______, the chromosomes are all lined up at the ______ _____, the midway point between the spindle's two poles. | metaphase; metaphase plate |
| In _____, sister chromatids separate and move along the kinetochore microtubules toward opposing ends of the cell. | anaphase |
| In _____, genetically identical daughter nuclei form at opposite ends of the cell. | telophase |
| Cytokinesis: In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by a process of known as _____, forming a _____ _____. | cleavage; cleavage furrow |
| In plant cells, a ____ _____ forms during cytokinesis. | cell plate |
| Prokaryotes reproduce by a type of cell division called _____ _____. | binary fission |
| In binary fission, the chromosome replicates, and the 2(two) _______ chromosomes actively move apart. | daughter |
| The sequential events of the cell cycle are directed by a distinct ____ _____ ____ ____, which is similar to a clock. | cell cycle control system |
| For many cells, the ___ checkpoint seems to be the most important one. | G1 |
| If a cell receives a go-ahead signal at the G1 checkpoint, it will usually complete the ___, ___, and _____ phases and divide. | S phase; G2 phase; M phase |
| If the cell does not receive the go-ahead signal, it will exit the cycle, switching into a nondiving state called the ____ phase. | G2 |
| Two types of regulatory proteins are involved in cell cycle control: | cyclins; cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks) |
| MPF (maturation-promoting factor) | is a cyclin-Cdk complex that triggers a cell's passage past the G2 checkpoint into the M phase. |
| growth factors | proteins released by certain cells that stimulate other cells to divide. |
| An example of external signals is _____-______ ______, in which crowded cells stop dividing. | density-dependent inhibition |
| Most animal cells also exhibit ____ ____, in which they must be attached to a subsbustratum in order to divide. | anchorage dependence |
| A normal cell is converted to a cancerous cell by a process called: | transformation |
| If abnormal cells remain at the original site, the lump is called a ... | benign tumor |
| ______ _____ invade surrounding tissues and can _____, exporting cancer cells to other parts of the body, where they may form secondary tumors. | Malignant tumors; metastasize |
| Genetics | the scientific study of heredity and variation. |
| Heredity | the transmission of traits from one generation to the next. |
| Variation | demonstrated by the differences in appearance that offspring show from parents and siblings. |
| Genes | the units of heredity, and are made up of segments of DNA. |
| Gametes | reproductive cells (sperm and egg cells) |
| Most DNA is packaged into | chromosomes |
| Asexual reproduction | one parent produces genetically identical offspring by mitosis |
| Clone | a group of genetically identical individuals from the same parent. |
| Sexual reproduction | two parents give rise to offspring that have unique combinations of genes. |
| karyotype | an ordered display of the pairs of chromosomes from a cell. |
| homologous chromosome | 2 chromosomes in each pair (homologs). |
| life cycle | generation-to-generation sequence of stages in the reproductive history of an organism. |
| sex chromosome | called X and Y. |
| sex chromosome--females | homologous pair of X chromosomes (XX) |
| sex chromosomes--males | XY |
| The 22 pairs of chromosome that do NOT determine sex are called: | autosomes |
| diploid cell (2n) | has two sets of chromosomes |
| Each replicated chromosome consists of two identical _______ _______. | sister chromatids |
| A gamete contains a single set of chromosomes, and is _____. | haploid (n) |
| Fertilization | the union of gametes |
| A fertilized egg is called a _____ and has one set of chromosomes from each parent. | zygote |
| The zygote produces somatic cells by ______ and develops into an adult. | mitosis |
| At sexual maturity, the ovaries and testes produce _____ gametes. | haploid |
| Gametes are the ONLY types of human cells produced by ____. | meiosis |
| Diploid organism | sporophyte, makes haploid spores by meiosis. |
| Each spore grows by mitosis into a haploid organism called | gametophyte, makes haploid gametes by mitosis. |
| Meiosis takes place in 2 sets of cell division | meiosis I and meisosis II...the 2 daughter cells results in 4 daughter cells; each daughter cell has only half as many chromosomes as the parent cell |
| Which type of cell can undergio mitosis? | diploid |
| Meiosis (Stages): Meiosis I | Homologous chromosomes separate, resulting in 2 haploid daughter cells with replicated chromosomes...called "reductional division" |
| Meiosis (Stages): Meiosis II | sister chromatids separate, resulting in four haploid daughter cells with unreplicated chromosomes...called "equational division" |
| Meiosis I is preceded by _______, in which chromosomes are replicated to form sister chromatids | interphase |
| Meiosis I: Interphase | sister chromatids are genetically identical and joined at the centromere...the single cell replicates, forming 2 centrosomes |
| Meiosis I Division occurs in 4 stages | Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I (cytokinesis) |
| Meiosis: Prophase I | occupies more than 90% of the time required for meiosis...chromosomes begin to condense. |
| synapsis | homologous chromosomes loosely pair up, aligned gene by gene. |
| crossing over | nonsister chromatids exchange DNA segments...each pair of chromosomes fors a tetrad, a group of four chromatids. |
| Each tetrad usually has one or more _____, X-shaped regions where crossing over occurred. | chiasmata |
| Meiosis: Metaphase I | tetrads line up at the metaphase plate, with one chromosome facing each pole.microtubules from one pole are attached to the kinetochore of one chromosome of each tetrad.microtubules from other pole are attached to the kinetochore of the other chromosome. |
| Meiosis: Anaphase I | pairs of homologous chromosomes separate..one chromosome moves toward each pole, guided by the spindle apparatus..sister chromatids remain attached at the centromere & move as one unit toward the pole. |
| Meiosis: Telophase I & Cytokinesis | each half of the cell has a haploid set of chromosomes, each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids. Cytokinesis usually occurs forming simultaneously, forming two haploid daughter cells. |
| No chromosome replication occurs between the end of _______ and the beginning of _______ because the chromosomes are already replicated. | meiosis I; meiosis II |
| Meiosis II occurs in 4 stages: (very similar to mitosis) | Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II & Cytokinesis |
| Meiosis II: Prophase II | a splindle apparatus forms..chromosomes (each with 2 chromatids) move toward the metaphase plate. |
| Meiosis II: Metaphase II | sister chromatids are arranged at the metaphase plate..(b/c of crossing over in meiosis I) 2 sister chromatids of each chromosome are no longer genetically identical...kinetochores of sister chromatids attach to microtubules extending from opposite poles. |
| Meiosis II: Anaphase II | sister chromatids separate..sister chromatids of each chromosome now move as two newly individual chromosomes toward opposite poles. |
| Meiosis II: Telophase II & Cytokinesis | chromosomes arrive at opposite poles...nuclei form, and the chromosomes begin decondensing. |
| Meiosis II: Cytokinesis | separates the cytoplasm |
| Meiosis II (results) | there are 4 daughter cells, each with a haploid set of unreplicated chromosomes...each daughter cell is genetically distinct from the others and from the parent cell. |
| Mitosis.... | conserves the number of chromosome sets, producing cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell. |
| Meiosis.... | reduces the number of chromosomes sets from two (diploid) to one (haploid), producing cells that differ genetically from each other and from the parent cell. |
| Mitosis & Meiosis --- DNA replication | Mitosis: occurs during interphase before mitosis begins ;; Meiosis: occurs during interphase before meiosis begins |
| Mitosis & Meiosis --- Number of divisions | Mitosis: 1 ;; Meiosis: 2 |
| Mitosis & Meiosis --- Sypnasis of homologous chromosomes | Mitosis: does NOT occur ;; Meiosis: occurs during Prophase I along w/ crossing over b/w non-sister chromatids, resulting chiasmata pairs holds pairs together due to sister chromatid cohesion. |
| Mitosis & Meiosis --- Number of daughter cells & genetic composition | Mitosis: 2 (genetically identical to the parent cell) ;; Meiosis: 4 (genetically different from the parent cell & from each other). |
| Mitosis & Meiosis --- Role in the animal body | Mitosis: enables rise from zygote, produces cells for growth, repair & asexual reproduction (some species). ;; Meiosis: produces gametes, reduces # of chrompsomes by 1/2, and different genetical information in each. |
| Mutation | change in an organisms DNA |
| 3 Mechanisms contribute to genetic variation | independent assortment of chromosome; crossing over; random fertilization |
| Crossing over produces ______ ______ | combine genes inherited from each parent...crossing over begins very early in Prophase I, as homologous chromosomes pair up gene by gene. |
| In crossing over, homologous portions of 2 ____-______ chromatids trade places. | non-sister |
| Genetic Variation: Crossing Over | contributes by combining DNA from 2 parents into a single chromosome. |
| Genetic Variation: Random Fertilization | any sperm can fuse with any ovum (unfertilized egg)..fusion of 2 gametes produces a zygote with any of about 70 trillion diploid combinations. |
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kserrano005
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