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Lecture micro
Microbiology
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Define Genetics | The science of heredity and gene function |
| Define Genotype | The genetic make up of an organism |
| Define Phenotype | The external characteristics of an organisms genotype |
| Define Gene | A segment of DNA or a sequence of nucleotides in DNA, encodes a functional product |
| Describe the DNA Molecule | Double stranded, sugar, phosphate, nitrogenous bases, complementary base pairing, A:T, G:C |
| Define Anti-parallel Strands | 5'______3' 3'______5' |
| Define Sense Strand (Coding) | RNA in a virus that can act as mRNA |
| Define Antisense strand (Non Coding) | Complementary strand of DNA made from the sense strand that acts as a template to produce additional sense strands |
| Describe prokaryotic chromosomes | Singular, circular, double stranded, has no protein and RNA around DNA molecule. Only has enough to code for 1-3 proteins |
| Describe eukaryotic chromosomes | Process of cutting and slicing. They throw away the introns, and the exons get stitched together. A 7 methyl guanasine cap is added to the 5' end. Then a poly A tail is added to 3'end (20-300) |
| What Enzyme does the Retro-Virus use? | Reverse Transcriptase-uses the viral RNA as a template to produce complementary double-stranded DNA. This enzyme also degrades the original viral RNA. |
| What is semiconserved? | One old strand of DNA that acts as a template for another. You end up with one old strand and one new strand. |
| What is DNA polymerase? | Enzyme that synthesizes DNA by copying a DNA template. Adds to the 3' end. |
| What is RNA polymerase? | A polymerase that catalyzes the synthesis of a complementary strand of RNA from a DNA template, or, in some viruses, from an RNA template. |
| What is RNA primase? | An RNA polymerase (enzyme) that synthesises a short RNA primer sequence to initiate DNA replication |
| What are Okazaki Fragments? | Relatively short fragment of DNA synthesized on the lagging strand during DNA replication. Then stitched back together by DNA Ligase. |
| What is Transcription? | The process of making a copy of a section of DNA in the form of RNA. There are three types: mRNA (messenger), rRNA (ribose), and tRNA (transfer). |
| What is the role of RNA polymerase in transcription? | Enzyme that makes the copy |
| What is the promoter? | The starting site on a DNA strand for transcription of RNA by RNA polymerase |
| What is the terminator? | The site on a DNA strand at which transcription ends. |
| What is an Intron? | Region in a eukaryotic gene that does not code for a protein. |
| What are exons? | A region of a eukaryotic chromosome that codes a protein |
| What is 7-methyl guanasine? | Guanasine cap that is added to the 5' end |
| What is a poly-A tail? | gets added to 3' end approximately 20-300. A long tail means it can be used alot and a short tail means it can't be used as much |
| What is Translation? | The use of mRNA as a template in the synthesis of protein |
| What is degeneracy of code? | Redundancy of the genetic code; most amino acids are encoded by several codons-3 letter words that mean a specific amino acid sequence. Several codons have the same amino acid |
| What is the start sequence codon of Translation? | A U G |
| What are the stop sequence codons of Translation? | U A A, U G A, U A G: no meaning, no amino acid associated with stop codons |
| What is the structure of the operon consist of? | P-promoter, O-Operator site, I-regulatory gene, E,D,C,B,A-structural genes |
| True or False When the repressor is active, the operon is off? | True |
| When the repressor is inactive, the operon is on? | True |
| Induction | Always off until inducer turns on |
| Repression | Always on until turned off |
| What is a mutation? | A change in the base sequence of DNA. Such a change will cause a change in the product encoded by that gene. |
| What is Point Mutation? | The most common type of mutation also known as base substitution, a single base at one point in the DNA sequence is replaced with a different base. |
| What is Silent Mutation? | No effect of the mutation because it will encode for the same amino acid |
| What is Missense mutation? | Occurs when the base substitution results in an amino acid substitution in the synthesized protein |
| What is Nonsense mutation? | Occurs when a nonsense (stop)codon is created in the middle of an mRNA molecule, some base substitutions effectively prevent the synthesis of a complete functional protein; only a fragment is synthesized. |
| What are Frameshift mutations? | One or a few nucleotide pairs are deleted or inserted in the DNA. This can shift the "translational reading frame." Deleting one nucleotide pair in the middle of a gene causes changes in many amino acids downstream from the site of the original mutation. |
| What are some results of Frameshift mutations? | A long stretch of altered amino acids and the production of an inactive protein from the mutated gene. In most cases, a nonsense codon will eventually be encountered and thereby terminate translation. |
| What are mutagens? | Agents in the environment, such as certain chemicals and radiation,that directly or indirectly bring about mutations. |
| What are some examples of mutagens? | Inserters: Acridine Orange and Ethidium Bromide Base Analogs: They mimic the original base nucleotide-does not make right copy Radiation: Thymine dimers-UV |
| What are the two ways to identify mutants? | Positive Selection: only mutant grows, for example mutants that are resistant to penicillin grow Negative Selection: uses technique of replica plating. Plate containing histidine will grow non mutants. Plate without histidine, mutants won't grow. |
| What is the Ames Test? | Uses bacteria as carcinogen indicators. The test measures the reversion of histidine auxotrophs of Salmonella (his- cells, mutant that have lost the ability to synthesize histidine) to histidine-synthesizing cells (his+) after treatment with a mutagen. |
| Asexual Reproduction | They copy and then divide If something changes and one dies, then they all die |
| Sexual Reproduction | Mixed, offspring are variations Variations help keep some alive if there are changes in environment |
| What is transformation? | Genes are transferred from one bacterium to another as "naked" DNA in solution. This is one way that bacteria is not stuck with the DNA that it has. |
| What is conjugation? | Mediated by one kind of plasmid. Requires direct cell-to-cell contact. The conjugating cells must generally be opposite mating type; donor cells must carry the plasmid, and recipient cells usually do not. In this process, the plasmid is replicated. |
| What is Transduction? | In this process, the bacterial DNA is transferred from donor cell to recipient cell inside a virus that infects bacteria, called bacteriophage. |
| What are Plasmids? | small, circular, double stranded, self replicating, vary in size, carry toxins, antibiotic resistance, and have sex pili |
| What are transposons? | small segments of DNA that can move from one region of a DNA molecule to another. Usually, it messes up the sequence, and can't predict where it inserts |
| Chapter 9 Biotechnology | = |
| What is Recombinant DNA? | A DNA molecule produced by combining DNA from two different sources |
| What is a vector? | A holder for a piece of DNA (gene) such as a plasmid or virus used to insert genes into cell, or an Arthropod that carries disease-causing organisms from one host to another |
| What is a Restriction enzyme? | Enzyme that cuts double stranded DNA at specific sites between nucleotides. It can leave the ends "sticky" DNA ligase seals it back up and this can happen within 2 days |
| What is a Clone? | Many genetically identical cells, each of which carries a copy of the vector. |
| What is Electroporesis? | Uses an electrical current to form microscopic pores in the membranes of cells; the DNA then enters the cell through the pores. Agarose: big mesh used for DNA, and RNA. Polyacrylamide: fine mesh used for proteins. GOOD FOR VISUALIZING SAMPLE |
| What is Blotting used for? | Moving DNA to surfaces of piece of paper, its easier and quicker to probe DNA-Southern Blotting RNA-Northern Blotting Protein-Western Blotting |
| What is PCR-Polymerase Chain Reaction | Process by which small samples of DNA can be quickly amplified, increased to quantities that are large enough for analysis |
| What are the steps to PCR? | 1. Each strand will serve as template for DNA synthesis 2.DNA Polymerase-primer on both sides of amplified section 3. Hybridize to the fragments to be amplified 4. Polymerase synthesizes new compl.strands 5. DNA heated to convert new DNA into one stra |
| Chapter 10 Classification of Organisms | = |
| 1700's | Linnaus gives us the base for organization |
| 1969 | Whitaker-modernizes things and comes up with 5 Kingdom classification Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plants, and Animals |
| 3 Domains-Eukaryotes, Bacteria, Archea. What are the characteristics of each? | Prokaryotes: "reg bacteria"-E.coli, pseudomonis, peptidoglycan cell wall. Also "funny bacteria"-extreme environments, different cell walls |
| What are the rules for naming and classifying? | *Discoverer names it, Standard form-latinized, Binomial nomenclature, and published in specific journal (just 1) Genus species-underlined or italicized |
| What is the Heirarchy? | Kingdom, Filum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species |
| What is the Classification of E.coli? | Kingdom-monera Filum-Proteobacteria Class-Gamma proteobacteria Order-Enterobacteriales Family-Enterobacteriacea Genus-Escherichia Species-coli |
| What is the strain of E.coli that is harmful | E.coli 0157:H7, the type of flagella and type of carbohydrate is what makes it different, leads to death, shuts down kidneys |
| How are bacteria informally organized? | G+ (purple)and G- (pink), funny cell wall (archea no PG cell wall), no cell wall (mycoplasma) |
| What is a species of viruses? | population of viruses with similar characteristics that occupy a particular ecological niche (infect the same cell) |
| What is Differential Staining? | Gram stain and Acid-fast staining (Nocardia, mycobacterium) |
| What are Biochemical tests? | They use glucose, lactose, sucrose, gelatin, mannitol salt (S. aureus). Tells you what they produce such as acids, ethanol, gas. Tests are done individually to block for specific groups |
| What is Serology? | The use of antibodies (proteins that stick specifically). Slide agglutination-clumping, ELISA and Western Blot all utilize antibodies |
| What is Phage Typing? | A method of identifying bacteria using specific strains of bacteriophages-can determine which bacteria you had |
| What is Protein Analysis? | Can be used for identification and classification-Protein profile:"fingerprint" can standardize things. Amino Acid sequence analysis: protein is a reflection of DNA-importaint protein is widespread and limited mutation-cytochrome (ETS) |
| Nucleic acids-% of GC | percent of guanine and cytosine is a process that eliminates rather than identifies. It reflects the DNA sequence. The smaller amount of H bonds will fall apart first. The more the bubbles-less related |
| Chapter 11 Selected Bacteria | See handout |
| Chapter 12 Fungi, Algae, Protozoa, and Helminths | = |
| What is Mycology? | study of fungus |
| What is Mycosis? | Diseased caused by a fungus |
| Name the four groups of sexual reproduction | Zygomycota: produce zygospores (bread mold) Asomycote: sac fungi, spores are inside sac Basidiomycota: club fungi-spores on club (mushrooms) Deuteromycota-holding group until further classified-rDNA helping to reclassify usually end up in asomycote |
| What are the forms of fungi and give examples | Unicellular: Yeast: capable of fermentation (CO2, alcohol, & acids). Multicellular: Mold: filament is called a hyphae (group of hyphae is a mycelium) |
| What are some characteristics of multicellular fungi? | Each part is capable of growing. Asexual means of reproduction via hyphae. Asexual/sexual via spores |
| What are spores good for? | A good mode of transport. Like warm water and water environments. They are tougher than bacteria in terms of acid, drying, osmotic pressure, uses nitrogen and uses complex carbs. |
| What is an opportunistic fungal disease? | Healthy people don't generally get them, they take advantage of lower immune system. |
| What are the characteristics of an opportunistic fungal disease? | Easy: impossible to cure or treat because of the nature of the cell (eukaryote). Proft: not very lucrative to make treatments because not alot of people get them. |
| What are two types of toxins from fungi? | Mycotoxins: act on GI tracts, liver, and nervous system causing paralysis and hallucinations. Allergic reactions for example reaction to house molds |
| What are they categories of diseases from fungi? | Sytemic, Subcutaneous, Cutaneous, Superficial, and Opportunistic. Cutaneous and superficial is from the scraping of skin, keratinase-enzyme that effects keratin (ring worm) |
| What is Amphotericin B? | Classic antifungal for a broad range of fungi, usesful for systemic, has adverse effects such as renal toxicity and febril reaction (will give anti-fever med with this), its given through IV, and targets ergosteral-binds to make membrane leaky |
| What is Fluconazole? | Inhibits ergosterol synthesis, its popular, an alternative to Amphotericin B, and used for candida, oral thrush, and vaginitis |
| What is Voriconazole? | Its for a broad spectrum of fungi and is good for aspergillus |
| What is Nystatin? | Its not absorbed by GI tract so it can be used topically or swish and swallow for esophagus and gastric |
| What are the forms of protista? | Unicellular: euglena, and amoeba Colonies: volvox They produce toxin |
| How do protists reproduce? | Sexual, asexual, or dormant form (cyst) |
| What are the classifications of protists? | Plant-like Animal-like: Cillia-paramecium, flagella, pseudopods-amoeba, none-malaria Fungus-like: filament |
| What is Entamoeba histolytica? | classic amoeba, causes dysentery, if its in lungs it can kill, its the only pathogenic amoeba in human intestines, it ingests cysts for food and water |
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