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Bio final
Biology Final study
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Alleles | The different versions of a gene that determine specific variations of a trait. |
| Law of Dominance | The principle that some alleles mask the expression of others in a heterozygote. |
| Law of Segregation | The principle that two alleles for a trait separate during gamete formation. |
| Gametes | Reproductive cells, such as sperm and eggs, containing half the genetic information. |
| Homologous chromosomes | Pairs of chromosomes with the same gene sequences, one from each parent. |
| Homozygous | Possessing two identical alleles for a particular gene |
| Heterozygous | Possessing two different alleles for a particular gene. |
| Punnett square | A graphical representation used to predict the probability of offspring genotypes. |
| Law of Independent Assortment | The principle that genes for different traits are inherited independently of each other. |
| Chromosome theory of inheritance | The concept that genes are located on chromosomes which undergo segregation and assortment. |
| Multiple alleles | A situation where a gene has more than two possible alleles within a population. |
| Polygenic traits | Traits controlled by the interaction of multiple different genes. |
| Diploid | A cell or organism containing two complete sets of chromosomes. |
| Haploid | A cell or organism containing only a single set of chromosomes. |
| Somatic cell | Any cell in a multicellular organism except for the eggs or sperm |
| Zygote | The diploid cell produced by the union of two gametes |
| Biotechnology | The use of living systems or organisms to develop or make products |
| Genome | The complete set of genetic material present in a cell or organism |
| Ovaries | The female reproductive organs that produce eggs and hormones. |
| Fallopian tubes | The tubes through which eggs travel from the ovaries to the uterus. |
| Uterus | The organ where a fertilized egg implants and develops during pregnancy. |
| Testes | The male reproductive organs that produce sperm and hormones. |
| Chromosome | A threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus |
| Covalent bonds | Strong chemical bonds formed by the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. |
| Hydrogen bonds | Weak attractions between a hydrogen atom and another electronegative atom |
| Nitrogenous base | The molecules ($A, T, C, G, U$) that form the rungs of the DNA or RNA ladder |
| Sugar-phosphate backbone | The structural framework of nucleic acids composed of alternating sugar and phosphate |
| Pentose sugar (deoxyribose, ribose) | The five-carbon sugars found in the backbone of DNA and RNA. |
| Phosphate group | A chemical group consisting of phosphorus and oxygen that anchors the nucleotide |
| DNA polymerase | An enzyme responsible for synthesizing new DNA strands by adding nucleotides. |
| Antiparallel | The arrangement of the two strands of DNA running in opposite directions |
| Semiconservative replication | The process where DNA replication results in one original and one new strand |
| Telomeres | The protective repetitive DNA sequences found at the ends of chromosomes |
| Bacteriophage | A type of virus that infects and replicates within bacteria |
| Covalent Bond | A strong bond where atoms share electrons, specifically in the DNA backbone |
| Helicase | The enzyme that breaks the hydrogen bonds to unzip the DNA double helix |
| Hydrogen Bond | An attraction between a hydrogen atom and an oxygen or nitrogen atom |
| Ligase | An enzyme that seals gaps in the DNA phosphate-backbone during replication |
| Replication | The biological process of producing two identical replicas of DNA from one |
| Telomere | The specific terminal structure of a chromosome |
| Telomerase | An enzyme that extends the repetitive DNA sequences at the ends of chromosomes |
| Transformation | The process by which a cell takes up and incorporates foreign DNA from its surroundings |
| Anticodon | A sequence of three nucleotides on tRNA that corresponds to an mRNA codon |
| Codon | three-nucleotide sequence on mRNA that specifies a particular amino acid |
| Codon chart | A reference tool used to determine which amino acid corresponds to an mRNA sequence |
| Genetic code | The universal set of instructions used by living cells to translate genetic information |
| Polypeptide | A continuous, unbranched chain of amino acids |
| Protein Synthesis | multi-step process including transcription and translation to create proteins |
| Start codon | he specific codon (aug) that signals the beginning of translation |
| Stop codon | A nucleotide triplet within mRNA that signals a termination of translation |
| Translation | The process where a ribosome builds a protein based on an mRNA message. |
| Chromosomal mutation | A large-scale mutation involving changes to the structure or number of chromosomes |
| Duplication | mutation where a section of a chromosome is repeated |
| Deletion | mutation where a part of a DNA sequence or a chromosome is lost |
| Inversion | mutation where a segment of a chromosome is reversed end to end |
| Translocation | mutation where a segment of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another |
| Point mutation | mutation that affects only a single base pair in a DNA sequence |
| Substitution | mutation where one nitrogenous base is replaced by a different base |
| Frameshift mutation | mutation caused by insertion or deletion that shifts the way the sequence is read |
| Insertion | mutation involving the addition of one or more nucleotides into a DNA sequence |
| Deletion | mutation involving the removal of one or more nucleotides from a DNA sequence. |
| Mutagen | A physical or chemical agent that increases the rate of genetic mutations. |
| Mutation | Any permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism. |
| Messenger RNA | RNA molecule that carries genetic information from the DNA to the ribosome |
| Protein | Large molecules composed of amino acids that perform most cellular functions |
| Ribosomal RNA | RNA component of the ribosome that is essential for protein synthesis |
| Ribosomes | cellular structure where proteins are physically assembled |
| RNA polymerase | enzyme that produces primary transcript RNA from a DNA template |
| Transcription | process of copying a segment of DNA into RNA |
| Transfer RNA | RNA molecule that helps decode mRNA into a protein by carrying amino acids |
| Differentiation | process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type |
| Promoter | region of DNA that initiates transcription of a particular gene |
| Chromatin | material of which the chromosomes of organisms are composed, consisting of protein, RNA, and DNA |
| Methylation | biological process where methyl groups are added to DNA to regulate gene expression |
| Acetylation | process where an acetyl group is added to histones to loosen DNA for transcription |
| Homoetic / HOX genes | Genes that regulate the development of anatomical structures in various organisms |
| Gene expression | process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a functional product |
| Gene regulation | range of mechanisms used by cells to control which genes are expressed |
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va1entina
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