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BIO - FINAL
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Virus | A submicroscopic infectious agent consisting of either RNA or DNA surrounded by a protein coat |
| A virus only replicates..... | Inside living cells of an organism |
| What was the first virus discovered? | Tobacco mosaic virus |
| virions | Single virus particles |
| How big are virions? | 20-250 nanometers |
| A protective protein shell of virus | Capsid |
| A nucleic acid genome made of | DNA or RNA |
| A layer of membrane called the | Envelope |
| Virus capsids | made up of many protein molecules |
| Proteins join to make units called... | Capsomers |
| Capsomeres shapes | Helical, polyhedral, spherical, complex |
| Electron microscopy | Uses electrons instead of light to create high-resolution images of materials |
| Can a virus reproduce by itself? | No |
| Replication is how a virus spreads | Virus invades host cell and take over cell activities ad killing it |
| Virus lifecycle: Attachment | The virus recognizes and binds to a host cell via a receptor molecule on the cell surface |
| Virus lifecycle: entry | The virus or its genetic material enters the cell |
| Virus lifecycle: Genome replication and gene expression | The viral genome is copied and its genes are expressed to make viral proteins |
| Virus lifecycle: assembly | New viral particles are assembled from the genome copies and viral proteins. |
| Virus lifecycle: release | Completed viral particles exit the cell and can infect other cells. |
| Certain viruses can only attack... | Certain cell types |
| How can a virus recognize a cell? | matching its surface marker with a receptor site on a cell |
| Bacteriophage | Viruses that infect bacteria |
| lytic cycle | a phage acts like a typical virus: it hijacks its host cell and uses the cell's resources to make lots of new phages, causing the cell to lyse (burst) and die in the process |
| lysogenic cycle | allows a phage to reproduce without killing its host. Some phages can only use the lytic cycle |
| Are viruses living or nonliving? | Nonliving |
| The Three-Domain System | Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya |
| Bacteria: size | small 0.2-10 |
| Bacteria: Navigate by | chemotaxis |
| Bacteria: cell walls made of | peptidoglycan |
| Major Bacterial Phyla: Proteobacteria | Diverse group including E. coli, nitrogen-fixers, pathogens |
| Major Bacterial Phyla: Firmicutes | Gram-positive, includes Bacillus, lactic acid bacteria |
| Major Bacterial Phyla: Actinobacteria | Includes Streptomyces (antibiotics producers) |
| Major Bacterial Phyla: Bacteroidetes | Abundant in soil and gut microbiomes |
| Major Bacterial Phyla: Cyanobacteria | Photosynthetic, oxygen-producing |
| Cyanobacteria | Blue-green algae |
| Bacteria shapes: Cocci | spherical |
| Bacteria shapes: Bacilli | rod-shaped |
| Bacteria shapes: Spirilla | Spiral |
| Bacteria shapes: Vibrio | Curved rods |
| Bacteria arrangements: diplococci | Pairs |
| Bacteria arrangements: streptococci | Chains |
| Bacteria arrangements: staphylococci | Clusters |
| Bacterial cell wall: Gram-positive | Thick peptidoglycan layer - stain purple |
| Bacterial cell wall: gram-negative | Thin peptidoglycan layer - stain pink |
| Obligate aerobes | requires oxygen to grow |
| Facultative anaerobes | Can grow with or without oxygen |
| Obligate anaerobes | cannot survive and grow in environments that contain oxygen beyond a certain range (0.5 - 8%) |
| Decomposers | Break down organic matter |
| Primary producers | Photosynthetic and chemosynthetic bacteria |
| Nitrogen cycle | Nitrogen fixers, nitrifiers, denitrifiers |
| Symbiotic relationships | Mutualists, commensals, parasites |
| Disease agents | Human, animal, and plant pathogens |
| Biotransformation | Degradation of pollutants |
| Bioremediation | Process that uses microorganisms to degrade pollutants in the environment |
| Archaea | Single-celled microorganisms with structure similar to bacteria |
| Unique characteristics of Archaea: cell membrane | Ether linked lipids, branched hydrocarbon chains |
| Unique characteristics of Archaea: cell wall | No peptidoglycan |
| Importance of protists and fungi | Fundamental components of all ecosystems, ancient lineages |
| Protists and fungi critical roles in.. | Primary production, decomposition, nutrient cycling, disease |
| What are protists? | Eukaryotic organisms that are not plants, animals, or fungi |
| Protists: diverse morphology | May be single-celled like bacteria, or may look like a fungus |
| Protists diverse nutrition | Photosynthetic, heterotrophic, mixotrophic |
| phagocytosis | the cell membrane engulfs a food particle and brings it inward, pinching off a food vacuole |
| Excavata | Diverse group defined by cytoskeletal features |
| Giardia | intestinal parasites, lack mitochondria |
| Trichomonas | anaerobic |
| Excavata: Giardia | An intestinal infection causing stomach cramps, bloating, nausea, & diarrhea |
| Excavata: Giardia cause | a microscopic parasite (protist) found worldwide, especially in areas with poor sanitation and unsafe water |
| Trichomoniasis | Common sexually transmitted infection caused by Trichomonas vaginalis (parasitic protist) |
| SAR Supergroup | Stramenopiles, Alveolates, and Rhizaria |
| Stramenopiles | "Straw-haired" - often have hair-like flagella |
| Alveolates | Membrane-bound sacs under cell membrane |
| Rhizaria | Many produce elaborate mineral skeletons |
| Archaeplastida | Red and green algal chloroplasts incorporated into other protists |
| Amoebozoa | Amoeboid movement using pseudopodia |
| What are fungi? | Eukaryotic heterotrophs, multicellular, related to animals more than plants |
| Fungal structure: Hyphae | thread-like filaments |
| Fungal structure: Mycelium | network of hyphae |
| Sexual reproduction of fungi | Sexual reproduction begins when the haploid hyphae from two fungal organisms meet and join |
| Asexual reproduction of fungi | Fragmentation of hyphae, budding, fission |
| Ascomycota (Sac Fungi) | Largest fungal phylum |
| Ascomycota examples | yeast, morels and truffles |
| Basidiomycota (Club Fungi) | Sexual spores (basidiospores) on club-shaped basidia |
| Basidiomycota (Club Fungi) examples | mushrooms, puffballs |
| Glomeromycota | associate with ~80% of land plants. critical for soil structure |
| Lichens: Symbiotic association | Fungus, green alga |
| Lichens: Mutualistic relationship | alga provides photosynthates, fungus provides structure |
| Plant kingdom | Seedless non-vascular plants, seedless vascular plants, seed plants (gymnosperms and angiosperms) |
| Seedless plants | Plants that reproduce via spores rather than seeds, Ancestors to all land plants |
| Seedless plants groups | non-vascular and vascular |
| Key characteristics of seedless plants | Reproduction via spores (no seeds) needs water to fertilize |
| Non-vascular plants | Lack specialized transport tissues, small, Water and nutrients move by osmosis and diffusion |
| Bryophytes | Non-vascular seedless plant, mosses, liverworts, hornworts |
| Mosses | Stem-like and leaf-like structures (not true stems/leaves). Most diverse bryophytes |
| Liverworts | Unique spore-dispersal structures |
| Liverworts: growth forms | Thalloid (flat, ribbon like) Leafy (looks like moss) |
| Hornworts | Smallest bryophyte group, horn-shaped |
| Vascular seedless plants | Have xylem and phloem tissues, Efficient water and nutrient transport |
| Lycophytes: groups | Club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts |
| Monilophytes: groups | Ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns |
| Monilophytes | Largest group of seedless vascular plants |
| Ferns | Most diverse seedless vascular plants, Diverse habitats |
| Horsetails | Single living genus |
| Whisk Ferns | Simplest vascular plants, no true leaves or roots |
| Challenges of seedless reproduction: | Dependency on water for fertilization • Limited dispersal of spores • Vulnerable gametophyte stage |
| Key innovations in seed plants: | Protected embryo • Pollen (no need for water in fertilization) • Food storage in seeds • Enhanced dispersal mechanisms |
| Seed plants | Plants that produce seeds |
| Key adaptations: seeds | Protected embryo with nutritive tissue |
| Key adaptations: pollen | Vehicle for male gametes |
| Key adaptations | Reduced gametophyte generation • Vascular tissue improvements • Specialized reproductive structures • Gymnosperms and angiosperms |
| Gymnosperms | Seed-producing vascular plant whose seeds are not enclosed within an ovary or fruit |
| Conifers | Largest gymnosperm group |
| Conifers: types | pines, spruces, firs, redwoods. seeds in cones. |
| Cycads | Palm-like appearance |
| Ginkgo | Single living species, male and female seperated |
| Gnetophytes: types | Ephedra, Gnetum, Welwitschia |
| Welwitschia | iconic desert plant with two continuous growing leaves |
| Angiosperms | Has flowers and produces seeds enclosed within a carpel |
| Monocots: types | grasses, palms, orchids, lilies |
| Eudicots: types | roses, sunflowers, oaks, legumes |
| Monocots | Single cotyledon, low narrow leaf |
| Dicot | Two cotyledon, broad leaf |
| Endangered seed plants: threats | habitat loss and climate change |
| Seed banks | Stores seeds to preserve genetic diversity |
| Invertebrates | Animals without a vertebral column |
| Porifera | sponges |
| Cnidaria | jellies, corals |
| Platyhelminthes | flatworms |
| Nematoda | roundworms |
| Annelida | segmented worms |
| Mollusca | snails |
| Arthropoda | insects |
| Echinodermata | urchins |
| Rotifera | Microscopic aquatic animals |
| Bryozoa | Colonial "moss animals" |
| Brachiopoda | Lamp shells |
| Phoronida | Horseshoe worms |
| Chaetognatha | Arrow worms |
| Vertebrates | Animals with a backbone |
| Vertebrate classification | Fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals |
| Jawless fish | Most primitive existing vertebrates |
| Cartilaginous fish | Sharks, rays, skates, chimaeras |
| Bony fish | Most diverse vertebrate group |
| Ray-finned fish | Lionfish, swordfish, seahorse, fangtooth |
| Lobe-finned fish | African lungfish, coelacanths |
| Ecological roles of bony fish | Predators, herbivores, filter-feeders, omnivores |
| Amphibians | First vertebrates to transition to land |
| Caecilians (Gymnophiona) | Limbless amphibians found in tropical climates of Africa |
| Reptiles | First fully terrestrial vertebrates |
| Birds | Modern representatives of dinosaur lineage |
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