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unit 8: ecology
ap bio unit 8 + phylogeny
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| phylogenetic trees | -diagrams that represent evolutionary history of a group of organisms |
| cladograms | -trees that show amount of change over time measured by fossils |
| sister taxa | -two clades emerging from same node |
| basal taxon | -lineage evolved from root and remains unbranched |
| synapomorphy | -derived character shared by clade members -derived characteristics and ancestral characteristic |
| derived characteristic | -similarly inherited characteristic from most recent ancestor |
| ancestral characteristic | -characteristic that arose prior to common ancestor |
| node | -represent common ancestors -nodes and branches are called clades -species in a clade share a derived feature |
| root | -common ancestor of species |
| outgroup | -in many cladograms and trees -has the lineage least closely related to the rest of the organisms |
| monophyletic group | -most common ancestor and all its descendants |
| polyphyletic group | -does not include most recent common ancestor of all group members |
| paraphyletic group | -most recent common ancestor -not all descendants |
| principle of parsimony | -hypothesis that requires fewest assumptions -used if there are conflicts among characteristics |
| behavior | -response to stimulus -both internal and external |
| proximate cause | -stimulus that causes a behavior -the "how" |
| ultimate cause | -how the behavior has impacted survival -the "why" |
| innate behaviors | -developmentally fixed behaviors that are hereditary or taught by parents -experiences have no impact on behavior -fixed action pattern, migration, pheromones, stimulus response chains, body movement, directed movements (kinesis and taxis) |
| migration | -regular long distance change in location -triggered by environmental cues (sun position, magnetic field celestial cues) |
| directed movements | -towards or away from stimulus -kinesis and taxis (phototaxis, geotaxis, chemotaxis) |
| kinesis | -nondirectional movement from stimulus |
| taxis | -can be positive (towards) or negative (away) from stimulus -phototaxis, geotaxis, chemotaxis |
| phototaxis | -response to light -type of taxis |
| geotaxis | -response to gravity -type of taxis |
| chemotaxis | -response to chemicals -type of taxis |
| fixed action pattern (FAP) | -unlearned acts linked to stimulus -actions carried out and unchangeable once started -triggered by external cues |
| signals | -stimulus generated and transmitted through animal communication -visual, auditory, tactile, chemical -pheromones, stimulus response chains, body movement |
| pheromones | -chemicals emitted by species that affect other members of the species -chemical signal |
| stimulus response chains | -response as a stimulus for a specific behavior -ex: bird courtship ritual |
| body movement | -movement as a form of communication -ex: bee waggle dance |
| learned behavior | -behavior that modifies based on experience -spatial learning, associative learning, imprinting, and social learning |
| spatial learning | -memories based on structure or environment -cognitive maps or land maps |
| associative learning | -associating one environmental feature with another |
| imprinting | -long lasting to an individual -happens during sensitive period of development with first individual they encounter -ex:ducklings |
| social learning | -learning through observation and imitation |
| foraging | -food obtaining behavior -better foraging behaviors mean more successful finding food |
| mating | -can be monogamous or polyamorous -sexual dimorphism is a result of sexual selection |
| altruism | -selfless behavior -reduces individual fitness but increases fitness of species as a whole |
| phototropism | -directional response that causes plants to grow away or towards light |
| photoperiodism | -plants that develop in response to day length -should be planted during certain parts of the year |
| sign stimulus | -the stimulus that signs a behavior |
| sexual dimorphism | -difference in form, color, size, or behavior between male and female of the same species -causes sexual selection -ex: birds |
| ethology | -study of animal behavior |
| learning | -process that organisms acquire behaviors |
| ecosystem | -the sum of both biotic and abiotic organisms in a given area |
| biotic | -a living or once living factor of an ecosystem |
| abiotic | -a nonliving factor of an ecosystem -physical or chemical |
| 1st law of thermodynamics | -energy is not created or destroyed -law of conservation of mass |
| 2nd law of thermodynamics | -energy exchange increases entropy |
| metabolic rate | -total amount of energy used by an animal in a unit of time -measured in calories, heat loss, or oxygen consumed -a smaller mass means higher metabolic rate |
| endotherms | -uses thermal energy from metabolism to maintain body temperature |
| ectotherms | -uses external source to maintain body temperature |
| trophic levels | -species grouped together based on source of energy -energy is not recycled -primary producer, secondary consumer, tertiary consumer -autotrophs vs heterotrophs |
| autotroph | -use light energy to create own energy -primary consumer -plants, algae, and plankton |
| primary producer | -autotrophs -use light energy for own energy -chemosynthetic -produce foods by chemical reaction |
| heterotrophs | -rely on autotrophs to gain energy -primary, secondary, tertiary consumers and decomposers |
| primary consumer | -herbivores -gain energy from plants -first trophic level of heterotrophs |
| secondary consumer | -carnivores that strictly eat herbivores -gain energy from other organisms -second trophic level of heterotrophs |
| tertiary consumer | -carnivores that get energy from other carnivores -third trophic level of heterotrophs |
| decomposers | -fungi and prokaryotes -recycle chemical elements -fourth trophic level of heterotrophs |
| trophic structures | -determined by feeding relationship -food chain and food web |
| food chain | -displays a singular transfer of food energy from one organism to the next |
| food web | -displays multiple possible transfers of food energy from multiple possible organisms |
| primary production | -amount of light energy converted into chemical energy -a "spending limit" within an ecosystem -GPP and NPP |
| gross primary production (GPP) | -the total amount of primary production that can happen |
| net primary production (NPP) | -the GPP used by primary producer -varies by ecosystem |
| secondary production | -chemical energy in food converted to new bio mass -has around 10% efficiency |
| water cycle | -essential for all life -influences rate of ecosystem |
| carbon cycle | -required for formation of all organic compounds |
| nitrogen cycle | -required for production of amino acids, proteins, and nucleic acids |
| phosphorus cycle | -required for production of nucleic acids, phospholipids, and ATP |
| biogeochemical cycles (matter cycling) | -all matter cycles through systems in limited amounts (not solar) -contain biotic and abiotic factors -water cycle, carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, phosphorus cycle |
| plant self defense | -physical: thorns and trichomes -chemical: toxic or distasteful compounds |
| plant soil composition | -pH affects flower coloring -different nutrients more accessible depending on pH of soil |
| population | -group of individuals of the same species living in an area |
| population ecology | -analysis of factors that affect how and why population sizes change |
| density | -number of individuals per unit area -found by counting individuals or sampling |
| dispersion | -pattern of spacing among individuals within a population -clumped, uniform, or random |
| clumped dispersion | -individuals in patches -often result of herding behavior |
| uniform dispersion | -individuals evenly spaced in an area -due to territoriality |
| random dispersion | -unpredictable spacing -not very common |
| demography | -study of vital statistics of how populations change over time -uses life tables |
| life table | -age specific summary of survival pattern -shown with survivorship curve |
| survivorship curve | -used in demography -three types |
| survivorship curve type 1 | -low death rate in early life -high death rate in later life -ex: humans |
| survivorship curve type 2 | -constant death rate over entire life -ex: hummingbirds |
| survivorship curve type 3 | -high death rate in early life -low death rate for survivors -ex: fruit flies |
| exponential growth | -under ideological conditions and grows at a constant rate -access to food and free to reproduce -grows rapidly -in a J shaped curve |
| logistic growth | -per capita rate of increase approaches zero as population size nears carrying capacity |
| carrying capacity | -density of indiviuals |
| logistic growth | -per capita rate of increase approaches zero as population size nears carrying capacity |
| carrying capacity | -density of individuals exceeds ecosystem's resource availability |
| k- selection (density dependent selection) | -selection for traits sensitive to density -in high density populations |
| r-selection (density independent selection) | -selection that maximizes reproductive success -seen in low density populations |
| density dependent regulation | -factors slow or stop growth by decreasing birth rate and increasing death rate -competition, predation, toxic wastes, disease, intrinsic factors |
| density independent regulation | -factors that exert influence on population size, but not birth/death rate -weather, climate, natural disasters |
| community | -group of populations of species living closely and and capable of interacting |
| habitat | -place of community occupied by organisms |
| ecological niche | -role and position of a species in its environment -realized niche and fundamental niche |
| realized niche | -portion of fundamental niche the species actually occupies |
| fundamental niche | -niche potentially occupied by species if there were no limiting factors -predators, competitors, etc. |
| interspecific interactions | -interaction of individuals in different species |
| competition | -negative/negative relationship where animals compete for resources -competitor with better advantage will eliminate other -competitive exclusion principle and niche partitioning |
| competitive exclusion princible | -two species competing for the same resource cannot coexist and permanently |
| niche partitioning | -natural selection drives competition to different patterns |
| predation | -positive/negative relationship where predator kills and eats prey -both species refines by natural selection -batesian and mullerian mimickery |
| batesian mimicry | -harmless animal mimics harmful animal |
| Mullerian mimicry | -prey is bad tasting |
| herbivory | -positive/negative relationship where one animal eats plants or algae |
| symbiosis | -two animals live in direct contact with each other -mutualism, parasitism, commensalism |
| parasitism | -positive/negative where parasite parasite derives nourishment from host |
| mutualism | -positive/positive where both organisms benefit from relationship |
| commensalism | -positive/neutral where one animal benefits while the other is unaffected |
| facilitation | -positive/positive or positive/neutral, common in plants -one species has a positive or neutral effect on survival and reproduction of other |
| species diversity (biodiversity) | -a variety of organisms -measured by abundance and richness -Simpson's Diversity Index -high diversity means resistent to invasion |
| species richness | -number of different species |
| relative abundance | -proportion of each species that represents all individuals |
| Simpson's Diversity Index | -calculate diversity based on richness and abundance -high index means high biodiversity -1-E(n-1/N)2 |
| invasive species | -species that lowers biodiversity |
| keystone species | -species that are not abundant but species rely on them and contribute to biodiversity |
| human disturbances | -human activity that changes the community -global change, habitat loss, overharvesting |
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26salisburb
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