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Week 10
Animal reproduction + development
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Gametes definition | Haploid sex cells that fuse during fert. to form zygote (produced via meiosis) male = sperm; small + moves by flagellum, min. cost + max. # of attempts to fert. female = egg, much larger, not self propelled, max. nutrient supply to ensure zygote survives |
| Isogamy definition | gametes are identical in size and motility; common in algae + fungi |
| Anisogamy definition | gametes of differernt sizes, one is slightly larger + less motile |
| Oogamy definition | extreme form of anisogamy; one gamete is huge/sessile + other one is tiny/motile |
| Seperate sexes definition + pros/cons | indivs. are either male or female; pros: energy focused on one set of reproductive organs + genetic diversity; cons: finding a mate |
| Hermaphroditism definition + pros/cons | Individuals carry gonads of both sexes; pros: every indiv. is a potential mate; self fertilization, mutual fert. (both indiv. can produce eggs dobuling the offspring per encounter) cons: high energy cost (complex repro. system) |
| Types of hermaphroditism + examples | simultaneous (mutual + unilateral) + sequential (protandrous + protogynous) |
| Mutual + unilateral fertilization definition (hermaphrodites) | mutual (both act as male + female simultaneously) unilateral (one acts as the male + the other acts as the female) |
| Sequential hermaphroditism definition | an individual changes its sex during its lifetime; protandrous (male to female) ex. clownfish protogynous (female to male) |
| Sex determination in animals | either by enviromental determination (enviromental pressures or social factors) genotype determination (sex chromosomes aquired during fertilization determine the sex of offspring |
| Internal fertilization (location, synchronic activity required, # of eggs, parental care + animals where it is present) | inside the body; repoductive cycles; generally small # of eggs; generally greater parental care; present in aquatic + terrestrial animals |
| External fertilization (location, synchronic activity required, # of eggs, parental care + animals where it is present) | outside the body; release of gametes; generally large # of gametes; general limited parental care; present in aquatic animals |
| Strategies for release of gametes during external fertilization | spawning (group of indiv release gametes in response to enviromental cues/chemical signals from other indivs ex salmon) mating behavior (female releases eggs in response o being clasped by the male ex frogs) |
| Why do many animas exhibit seasonal reproductive activity | to maximize survival of offspring; when reasources/food is abundent |
| Advantages to having both sexual + asexual reproduction | maximizing reproductive success while still having genetic diversity |
| How are hermaphrodites thought to have evolved | strategy to maximize reproductive success- ex. if mates werent that availible |
| Viviparous definition | eggs are not laid + develop inside the parents body; the parent provides nourishment |
| Oviparous definition | eggs are laid + develop outside the parents body |
| Ovoviviparous definition | eggs are not laod + inside the parents body; the egg yolk provides nourishment |
| Female insect reproductive system | ovaries, spermatheca (sac used to store sperm after mating - the female can choose when to release sperm allowing her to decouple mating from fert.) spermathecal gland (secretes nutrients for sperm) acc. glands (produce glue to attach egg to substrate) |
| Male insect repoductive system | testes, sperm travel thru vas deferens + are stored in the seminal vesicles until mating, accesssory glands (produce seminal fluid to prevent other makes from mating + influences females behavior) penis + claspers deliever sperm + hold female |
| Female avian reproductive system | only left ovary/oviduct are functional; oviduct builds egg in stages; repoductive organs shrink outside of breeding season to save weight; cooaca is the common exit for digestive/excretory/reproductive systems |
| Male avian reproductive system | testes located deep in abdominal cacity + swell up during breeding season; most birds dont have a penis instead "cloacal kiss" mating occurs when the male + female press their cloacae together + sperm is transferred in seconds |
| Mammal reproductive anatomy (both) | gonads that produce gametes + secrete hormones; ducts for gamete transport + storage; structures for copulation |
| Male mammal reproductive structure (internal) | testes (paired glands that contain seminiferous glands where sperm form in scrotum) sperm mature/are stored in epididymis; sperm go down vas deferens then out thru ejaculatory ducts into urethra (drains extretory/reproductive organs thru penis) |
| Male mammal reproductive structure (accessory glands) | seminal vesicles secrete fluid (amino acids fructose to provide nutrients for sperm-make up 60% of semen vol.) prostate gland empties into urethra secreting milky alkaline fluid (25%) to activate sperm; bulbourethral gland secretes fluid b4 ejaculation |
| Penis anatomy (mammal) | the glans penis is homologous to the female clitoris + contains meny sensory nerves (baculum is penis bone) |
| Female mammal reproductive structure | ovaries contain follicles which produce gametes + hormones; oviducts allow eggs/zygote to travel from overary -> uterus (where fertilization happens); uterus is where fetus is developed (fert. egg implants into wall) cervis is neck of uterus |
| Female mammal reproductive structure (part 2) | vagina recieves sperm during intercourse + forms birth canal; vulva contains labia majoria/minora + clitoris (sensitive erectile tissue); mammery glands (not part of repro. system) small sacs of eptithelial tissue that secrete milk thru nipple |
| What structures are in the repoductive system | gonads (production of gamates); reproductive ducts (storage/transport of gamates) acc. glands (sperm nourish/protection + lubrication) external genitalia (support + delivery + reception of sperm) |
| Mammalian ovarian + menstal cycle | ovarian involves changes in ovaries + maturation of an oocyte (egg cell); the menstal cycle involves changes to the uterus to prepare for arrival of a fertilized egg (changes to cervix + breasts) all driven by hormones |
| Mammalian estrous cycle | found in most non-primate placental mammals characterized by the reabsorption of the endometruim (uterine lining) if fertilization does not occur. "heat" is a peroid of intense sexual receptivity to males in females |
| Seasonal polyestrous defintion | many animals onyl cycle during specific times of year; "short day breeders" cycle in fall so offspring are born in spring where lots of food/reasources are availible |
| Obligate parthenogenesis definition | females produce offspring from unfertilized eggs without ANY genetic contribution from males; ex. whiptail lizards - species is 100% female embyros are genetic clothes of the mother |
| Pseudocopopulation definition | with the absence of males the lizards still enage in "mating behaviors" one acting as the "male" + the other as the "female"; high estrogen levels triggers "female behavior" + high progestrone levels triggers a switch to "male behavior" |
| Sexual selection definition | natural selection for mating success |
| Primary vs. secondary sexual characteristics | primary: reproductive organs secondary: features related to mate acquisition |
| Intrasexual vs. intersexual selection + examples | Intra: males compete for female (ex. deer) or females compete for male (ex. lemurs) Inter: females choose a male (ex. baboon) |
| 5 examples of information used by females during sexual selection | costly characters, nuptial gifts, successs in territoriality, body symmetry (+ 5th was example - longer vs. shorter frog song, longer was better) |
| Monogamous definition | 1 partner; little sexual dimorphism, high certainty of paternity, extensive paternal care provided (ex. western gulls) |
| Polygynous definition (1 male, multiple females) | multiple partners; more ornamanted males, some certainty of paternity, less parental care provided (ex. elks) |
| Polyandrous definition (1 female, multiple males) | multiple partners; more ornamanted females, less certainty of paternity, less parental care provided (ex. red necked phalaropes) |
| Male polymorphism in side blotched lizard example | orange throat male (most agressive + large territory) defeats blue throat male (mildly agressive + small territory) defeats yellow throat male (non agressive + mimics female behavior to sneakily mate) which defeats blue |
| Developmental events from zygote to adult organism | fertilization, cleavage, gastrulation + organogenesis |
| (know chart on page 218 of notes - fushion of haloid gamates to form a diploid zygote) | !! |
| Steps of fertilization pt 1. | sperm cells contact egg's jelly coat -> acrosomal reaction (release of sperm hydrolytic enzymes + binding between sperm proteins/sperm binding receptors on egg) -> depolarization of egg membrane -> fusion of egg + sperm membranes -> increase in cytosolic |
| Steps of fertilization pt 2. | Ca+2 levels causing -> cortical reaction (enzymes released from cortical granules clip off egg receptors + lift/hardem vitelline layer forming fertilization envelope) -> egg activation -> entry of sperm nucleus + fusion w/ egg's nucleus |
| Prevention of polyspermy definition | preventing the egg being fertilized by more then 1 sperm; achieved by changing the electrical potential of the egg membrane (inversion of polarity) + modifications in the zona pellucida of the egg |
| Egg activation meaning | increase in the rate of cellular respiration + protein synthesis in the egg after fertilization (also there is a spreading wave of Ca+2 in the point of sperm nucleus entry) |
| Cleavage defintion | first major phase of embryonic development; rapid series of cell division, turns unicellular zygote -> multicellular embryo; end result is fluid filled embryo called the blastula/blastocyst w/different developmental regions |
| Holoblastic vs. meroblstic cleavage | holo occurs in yolk poor eggs (sea urchins, amphibians + humans) dividing entire egg; mero happens in yolk rich eggs (birds) division happens in small yolk free area |
| Holoblastic cleavage in amphibians | frogs have moderate amount of yolk concentrated at bottom of cell; yolk is dense + slows the cleavage furrow leading to differernt cell sizes/unequal division (2 diff. poles, animal + vegetal) |
| Animal vs. vegetal pole | animal: small rapidly dividing cells (top) + vegetal: large, yolk laden slowly dividing cells (bottom) |
| Meroblastic cleavage in birds | only a small part of the egg undergoes cleavage; (yolk is so massive that cleavage furrow can't cut thru it) -> the yolk does not become part of the embryos body, it serves purely as the external food during development |
| Blastodisc/blastoderm definition | development is restricted to a small thin cap of cells sitting on top of the yolk |
| Gastulation in sea urchins pt. 1 | mesenchyme cells migrate to the blastocoel (fluid filled cavity in blastula) -> vegetal plate invaginates -> the archenteron forms (primitive gut) mesenchyme cells grow projections towards blastocell wall -> arch. grows across blastocoel dragged... |
| Gastulation in sea urchins pt. 2 | ...projections of mesen. cells -> the mouth forms; three germ layers are present |
| 3 embryonic germ layers | ectoderm, mesoderm + endoderm |
| Ectoderm derivatives | epidermis of skin + its derivatives. nervous system... |
| Mesoderm derivatives | skeletal system + muscualr system... |
| Endoderm derivatives | epithelial lining of digestive tract + respiratory system |
| How does notochord form + what does it become in adults | forms during gastrulation; fuctions as support + it becomes the spine in adults |
| Orabogenesis definition | the process of how the 3 germ layers in an embryo differntiate + develop into tissues/organs |
| What germ layer is neural plate in + how does neural tube form? | in ectoderm. notochord sends signals to flat ectoderm to thicken to form neural plate forming neural folds; edges lift, center of plate sinks inwards forming deep center celled neural groove (tissue bends via microtubules + microfilaments) "peaks" fold... |
| neural tube formation pt. 2 | ...towards eachother til they touch (cells at very tip-neural crest cells-break away from main tissue layer) pinches off to create 2 layers; neural tube is precurser to brain + spinal chord; outer ectoderm fuses to form epidermis (skin) |
| Microtubulue definition | colum of tubulin dimers; part of cytoskeleton; maintain cell shape + act as transport tracks for organelles/vesicles |
| Microfiliment definition | twisted strands of actin; enable cell movement + muscle contraction |
| Roles of cytoskeleton in development (in forming neural tube) | microtubules help lengthen the cells of the neural plate; actin microfiliments in the dorsal side contract giving cells a wedge shape (helping plate bend) neural tube forms by pinching off of the neural plate |
| Cell migration definition | cells migrate within the embryo by using their cytoskeleton to protrude + recract "feet" in an ameboid like movement. molecules of the extracellular matrix guide cell migration |
| Convergent extension meaning | (to help lengthen the neural plate) tissue narrows (convergence) and lengthens (extension) to reorganize tissues |
| Processes involved in the embryonic development of multicellular organisms | cell division (cells multiply); cell differntiation (cells can become specialized in form/function) + morphegenesis (organism takes shape) |
| Cell differntiation vs. morphogenesis | cell differntiation (cells can become specialized in form/function) + morphegenesis (organism takes shape-spacial organization of those cells) |
| Induction by neighbouring cells meaning | sigalling molecule sends signals to receptors which go down s translation pathway to nucleus to change the fate of neighboring cells for differntiation + organization |
| Determination definition | cells narrow down their developmental potential + commit to a specific fate |
| Determination/differtiation in muscle cells | precurser cell (myoblast) commit/determine a muscle fate; then differntiate/specialize in to muscle fibers. MyoD is important transcription factor |
| 3 types of cloning | gene, cell + organismal cloning |
| Gene cloning | inserting a gene from one species to another; ex. human growth hormone gene is inserted into a bacterium which now produces the human growth hormone |
| Cell cloning | division of asexually producing organisms into identical daughter cells; ex. an amoeba undergoes cell division |
| Organismal cloning | production of a multicellular organism from a single cell;ex. CC the first cloned cat + her mom Rainbow |
| Cloning plants | adult plants have cells that can de-differntiate + become totipotent (can give rise to all plant cell types) |
| Stem cells definition | unspecialized cells that can differntiate into many or several cell types (most diff. animal cells cannot divide anymore bc they express cell cycle blocking genes) |
| Animal stem cells | embryonic stem cells (ES), adult stem cells + indced pluripotent cells (iPS) |
| Totipotent vs.pluripotent | (only in early embryonic stages) totipotent = all cell types; pluripotent = many cell types adult stem cells can only produce some specific cell types ex. bone marrow contain cells that diff. into blood cells |
| How cloning animals nuclear transplantation works | mammary cell fused with egg cell -> growth in culture -> implemented in uterus of third sheep -> embryonic development -> baby lamb genetically identical to mammary cell donor |
Created by:
every_august
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