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unit 6: genes
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| transcription | -synthesis of RNA -happens in nucleus -creates the "message" of DNA |
| translation | -creates polypeptide from RNA -turns nucleotide sequence into amino acid sequence -happens at ribosome |
| mRNA | -synthesized during transcription -carries info from nucleus to ribosome |
| tRNA | -important in translation -attaches anticodon to mRNA with the specific amino acid -translates info into polypeptide sequence |
| rRNA | -helps form ribosomes and link amino acids |
| anticodon | -complementary codon to triplet of mRNA |
| codon | -mRNA triplets |
| template strand | -when only one DNA is transcribed |
| redundancy | -there is more than one codon for each amino acid -64 different codons, 23 different amino acids |
| reading frame | -strand must be read in correct groups -leads to detrimental mutations if incorrect |
| initiation (transcription) | -first step of transcription -RNA polymerase attaches to promoter |
| elongation (transcription) | -second step of transcription -RNA polymerase opens DNA and reads codons, moving 3' to 5' -only does small portions at a time -growing mRNA peels away and recreates double helix |
| termination (transcription) | -third step of transcription -prokaryotes have a termination signal and RNA polymerase detaches -eukaryotes have polyadenylation sequence, which releases pre-mRNA from DNA |
| promoter | -allows RNA polymerase to attach -goes upstream of desired gene |
| TATA box | -the promoter for eukaryotes -RNA polymerase binds to TATA box -transcription factors bind to RNA polymerase |
| transcription factors | -enzymes within the cell that preform the transcription process -in the TATA box in eukaryotes -bind directly to RNA polymerase in prokaryotes |
| termination sequence | -used in prokaryotes for termination -the termination signal for RNA polymerase -RNA polymerase detaches -transcribed mRNA is released to translation without modifications |
| polyadenylation signal | -used in eukaryotes for termination -AAUAAA -releases pre-mRNA from DNA to undergo modification |
| 5'-cap | -modified guanine nucleotide "cap" on mRNA -helps mRNA leave nucleus -protects mRNA from degradation -ribosomes attach at 5' end |
| poly-a tail | -3' end of pre-mRNA -receives 50-250 adenine nucleotides -helps mRNA leave nucleus -protects from degradation |
| RNA splicing | -removes introns and join exons together |
| intron | -intervening nucleotide sequence -do not code for amino acids -removed during splicing |
| exon | -expressed section of DNA -code for amino acids -joined together during splicing |
| alternative splicing | -things like exon skipping, alternative sites, or intron retention -lead to incorrect amino acids, mutations, and diseases |
| pre-RNA | -RNA before modifications -does not have poly-a tail and 5' cap -introns still in mRNA |
| mature RNA | -RNA after modifications -contains only exons, poly-a tail, and 5' cap |
| large ribosomal subunits | -contains three sites (A,P,E) -40s in prokaryotes -60s in eukaryotes |
| small ribosomal subunits | -assist in translation -binds to mRNA -prokaryotes are 30s -eukaryotes are 40s |
| A site | -in large ribosomal subunit -amino acid site -holds next charged tRNA |
| P site | -in large ribosomal subunit -polypeptide site -holds the tRNA carrying the growing chain |
| E site | -in large ribosomal subunit -exit site -tRNA leaves |
| retrovirus | -exception to standard flow of genetic information -info goes from RNA to DNA |
| reverse transcriptase | -enzyme that pairs viral RNA to DNA -DNA becomes part of RNA |
| stop codon | -codon that codes for the ribosome to stop transcribing -in 5' cap |
| protein structures | -determined by genes -show as peptide chain coils |
| operons | -group of genes that can turn on or off -promoter or operator |
| promoter | -where RNA polymerase joins together |
| operator | -the on or off switch for for operon |
| gene | -code related enzyme in pathway |
| repressible | -operons that are usually on and can stop |
| inducible | -operons that are usually off but can start |
| regulatory gene | -produce repressor -always lowly expressed -binding to operator is reversible |
| activator | -substrate that binds to an allosteric site and stabilizes shape so active site remains open |
| inhibitor | -binds to allosteric site and stabilizes enzymes so active site closes |
| epigenetic inheritance | -does not alter nucleotide sequence -modification can reverse -explains identical twins inheriting different diseases |
| differential gene expression | -a difference in cell type -phenotype of cell determined by combination of expressed genes |
| chromatin structure | -DNA being tightly wound means its harder to transcribe -histone acetylation and DNA methylation |
| histone acetylation | -adds acetyl to histones (loose DNA) -because of chromatin structure |
| DNA methylation | -adds methyl group to DNA to condense it -because of chromatin structure |
| translation initiation | -modified DNA accessible -noncoding DNA is the binding site -increase or decrease by activator binding |
| morphogenesis | -physical process used to give an organism a shape -embryonic development, cell division, and cell differentiation -uses specialized cells |
| apoptosis | -programmed cell death -plays a critical role in expression -allows structures to take form |
| cytoplasmic determinants | -differentiate early development -substances in egg that influence cells |
| induction | -cell to cell signals that change gene expression |
| protein structures | -determined by genes -show as peptide chain coils |
| operons | -group of genes that can turn on or off -promoter or operator |
| promoter | -where RNA polymerase joins together |
| operator | -the on or off switch for for operon |
| gene | -code related enzyme in pathway |
| repressible | -operons that are usually on and can stop |
| inducible | -operons that are usually off but can start |
| regulatory gene | -produce repressor -always lowly expressed -binding to operator is reversible |
| activator | -substrate that binds to an allosteric site and stabilizes shape so active site remains open |
| inhibitor | -binds to allosteric site and stabilizes enzymes so active site closes |
| epigenetic inheritance | -does not alter nucleotide sequence -modification can reverse -explains identical twins inheriting different diseases |
| differential gene expression | -a difference in cell type -phenotype of cell determined by combination of expressed genes |
| chromatin structure | -DNA being tightly wound means its harder to transcribe -histone acetylation and DNA methylation |
| histone acetylation | -adds acetyl to histones (loose DNA) -because of chromatin structure |
| DNA methylation | -adds methyl group to DNA to condense it -because of chromatin structure |
| translation initiation | -modified DNA accessible -noncoding DNA is the binding site -increase or decrease by activator binding |
| morphogenesis | -physical process used to give an organism a shape -embryonic development, cell division, and cell differentiation -uses specialized cells |
| apoptosis | -programmed cell death -plays a critical role in expression -allows structures to take form |
| cytoplasmic determinants | -differentiate early development -substances in egg that influence cells |
| induction | -cell to cell signals that change gene expression |
| protein structures | -determined by genes -show as peptide chain coils |
| operons | -group of genes that can turn on or off -promoter or operator |
| promoter | -where RNA polymerase joins together |
| operator | -the on or off switch for for operon |
| gene | -code related enzyme in pathway |
| repressible | -operons that are usually on and can stop |
| inducible | -operons that are usually off but can start |
| regulatory gene | -produce repressor -always lowly expressed -binding to operator is reversible |
| activator | -substrate that binds to an allosteric site and stabilizes shape so active site remains open |
| inhibitor | -binds to allosteric site and stabilizes enzymes so active site closes |
| epigenetic inheritance | -does not alter nucleotide sequence -modification can reverse -explains identical twins inheriting different diseases |
| differential gene expression | -a difference in cell type -phenotype of cell determined by combination of expressed genes |
| chromatin structure | -DNA being tightly wound means its harder to transcribe -histone acetylation and DNA methylation |
| histone acetylation | -adds acetyl to histones (loose DNA) -because of chromatin structure |
| DNA methylation | -adds methyl group to DNA to condense it -because of chromatin structure |
| translation initiation | -modified DNA accessible -noncoding DNA is the binding site -increase or decrease by activator binding |
| morphogenesis | -physical process used to give an organism a shape -embryonic development, cell division, and cell differentiation -uses specialized cells |
| apoptosis | -programmed cell death -plays a critical role in expression -allows structures to take form |
| cytoplasmic determinants | -differentiate early development -substances in egg that influence cells |
| induction | -cell to cell signals that change gene expression |
| pattern formation | -influenced by cytoplasmic determinants and induction -body plan for an organism -homeotic genes map body structures |
| homeotic genes | -map body structures -body plan for an organism |
| RNA processing | -alternative splicing of pre-mRNA -translation activated or repressed by initiation factors -microRNAs and small interfering RNA block translation |
| microRNA | -bind to mRNA to degrade or block translation -used in RNA processing |
| small interfering RNA | -bind to mRNA to degrade or block translation -used in RNA processing |
| repressors | -operons bind to repressors and turn it active -active repressors shut down transcription |
| allosteric activation | -uses activator and inhibitor |
| mutations | -changes in genetic material of a cell -can alter phenotypes -small or large scale -primary source of genetic information |
| genetic variation | -result of mutations |
| point mutations | -mutations on a single nucleotide -substitution or frameshift |
| substitution | -replacing one pair of nucleotides with another -missense, nonsense, or silent |
| silent substitution | -replacing a nucleotide pair with the same amino acid -often does not change amino acid |
| missense substitution | -replacing a nucleotides pair with a different amino acid -can change amino acid |
| nonsense substitution | -replacing the nucleotide with a different amino acid -changes amino acid to stop codon |
| frame shift | -when the reading frame is altered -has disastrous effect to protein -insertion or deletion |
| insertion frame shift | -when a nucleotide is inserted to the frame of DNA reading |
| deletion frame shift | -when a nucleotide is deleted from the frame of DNA reading |
| nondisjunction | -when a chromosome does not separate properly |
| large scale mutations | -mutations that affect the chromosome -nondisjunction, duplication, inversion, deletion, and translocation |
| translocation | -when a segment of a chromosome moves to another |
| inversion | -when a segment of chromosome is reversed |
| duplication | -when a segment of chromosome is repeated |
| deletion | -when a segment of chromosome is lost |
| horizontal gene transfer | -how prokaryotes exchange genetic material -transformation, transposition, transduction, conjugation |
| transformation | -up taking DNA from a nearby cell -kind of horizontal gene transfer |
| transduction | -viral genetic transmission -type of horizontal gene transfer |
| transposition | -movement of DNA within and between molecules -type of horizontal gene transfer |
| conjugation | -cell to cell transfer of DNA -horizontal gene transfer |
| gel electrophoresis | -used to separate DNA by size -loaded into wells on one end and electric current on the other -DNA is negative so the DNA moves -gets DNA from PCR |
| polymerase chain reaction | -method used to make several copies of DNA segments -segments of DNA are amplified -results are analyzed with gel electrophoresis |
| DNA sequencing | -order of nucleotides in DNA |
| purines | -double ring structure -adenine and guanine |
| pyrimidines | -single ring structure -cytosine, uracil, thymine |
| backbone | -made of sugar-phosphate -is a double stranded helix -runs antiparallel |
| antiparallel | -5' to 3' then 3' to 5' |
| plasmid | -in prokaryotes -circular chromosomes -replicate independently from chromosomes |
| recombinant plasmid | -plasmids manipulated in a lab -changes gene expression -spreads to others |
| chargaff's rule | -Adenine to Thymine/ Uracil -Guanine to Cytosine |
| DNA | -deoxyribonucleic acid -double stranded -Adenine to Thymine -Cytosine to Guanine |
| RNA | -ribonucleic acid -single stranded -Adenine to Uracil -Cytosine to Guanine |
| conservative model | -entirely new double stranded model -parental strands fully conserved and kept together |
| semi-conservative model | -making a copy -parental copy kept and paired with new copy |
| dispersive model | -randomly alter between new and parental |
| origins of replication | -proteins attach and open DNA -forms replication fork |
| replication fork | -formed at origin of replication -when proteins attach to origins of replication |
| helicase | -attaches to unwound DNA and helicase at each end -step two |
| single stranded binding proteins (SSBPs) | -hold DNA apart during replication -step two |
| topoisomerase | -prevent strain ahead of replication fork -relaxes supercoiling -step two |
| primase | -initiates replication with primer -DNA synthesizers only attach to existing strands -foundation of DNA synthesis -step three |
| DNA polymerase 3 | -attaches to each primer -follows helicase on leading strand -moves away from helicase on lagging strand -moves 5' to 3' |
| leading strand | -5' to 3' -DNA polymerase 3 uses one primer |
| lagging strand | -3' to 5' -DNA polymerase 3 uses multiple primers |
| Okazaki fragments | -segments of lagging strands |
| DNA polymerase 1 | -replaces RNA from DNAP3 with DNA nucleotides |
| DNA ligase | -joins fragments together to form continuous DNA |
| telomeres | -repeating nucleotides that do not code for genes -caps at end of DNA for erosion -by telomerase |
| telomerase | -places telomeres on ends of DNA |
| nuclease | -removes segments so DNAP and ligase can replace them if there are issues |
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