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Week 7
Carbohydrates + energy metabolism
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| List 3 main types of carbs + 3 most common elements found in them | monosaccharides, disaccharides (simple sugars) + polysaccharides (complex sugars) C, H + O |
| Major functions of carbs | they serve as fuel, building material + cell identity markers. carbs are hydrophilic |
| General chemical formula of a monosaccaride + 3 examples | CnH2nOn (1:2:1 ratio) most common is glucose (C6H12O6) ex. glucose, fructose + galactose -> can be classified by position of functional group + # of C |
| Aldose vs. ketoses | Aldose: contain an aldehyde group ( double bond O at end of structure) Ketose: contain a keytone group (double bond O in middle of structure) |
| Trioses vs. pentoses vs. hexoses | carbon chain length. 3 carbons vs. 5 carbons vs. 6 carbons |
| Starch based on: 1. monosaccharides 2. structure 3. location 4. function | made of a-glucose, 2 forms- amylase (unbranched) + amylopectin (few branches); found in plant cells, energy storage in plants |
| Metabolism definition | The sum of all biochemical reactions that take place in a living organism/cell (that converts food into energy) allows an organism to manage the materials + energy it needs to function. Consists of 2 main processes, catabolism + anabolism |
| a -1,4,-glycosidic linkage vs. b -1,4,-glycosidic linkage | a: found in starch + glycogen. glucose bonds point in same direction; function in energy storage, digestible b: found in cellulose. every other glucose is flipped creating a straight unbranched chain, undigestible (by humans) struc. support |
| Where is potential energy stored (in molecules) | in the bonds that hold atoms together, energy is absorbed when bonds break (energy is needed to break bonds) + released when they are formed |
| List biological processes that require energy +where living organisms get energy | metabolism, movement, growth, cell division and action potential. energy is obtained from the food we eat |
| First law of thermodynamics | energy is only transformed and transferred not destroyed or created. the energy of the universe is constant. earths main source of energy is the sun |
| Seconds law of thermodynamics | Every energy transfer of transformation increases the entropy (disorder) of the universe (some energy is unusuable and lost as heat |
| Potential energy in covalent bonds | non polar bonds have a higher potential energy becuase the electrons are not being held strongly to one side |
| Potencial energy related to the position of electrons around the nucleus | The farther away the electron is from the the nucleus, the larger the amount of potential energy present. When shared electrons are far from both atoms' nuclei that have a large amount of potential energy, and when theyre close they have less |
| Metabolic pathway defintion | Begins with a specific molecules + ends with a product; each step is catalyzed by a specific enzyme. 2 groups anabolic + catabolic |
| Catabolic pathway defintion | Release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds (produces energy + building blocks for the synthesis of new molecules) |
| Anabolic pathway defintion | Consumes energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones (to create energy storage or structural molecules) |
| Coupled reaction definition | reactions that occur together; the energy released from catabolic processes is used to power the anabolic processes |
| How does energetic coupling happen | cells transferring phosphate groups (from or to ATP) or transferring electrons |
| Phosphorylation definition | the chemical attatchment of a phosephate group to a molecule often used by cells to control energy transfer + regulate bioloogical processes |
| 2 ways ATP gets synthesized: | substrate level phosphorylation or oxidative phosphorylation |
| Redox reaction definition | the transfer of electrons during chemical reactions releases energy stored in organic molecules (redox = oxidation-reduction) |
| Electron carrier definition + 2 examples | any molecules that readily accepts electrons from and donates electrons to other molecules. FAD + NAD+ act as oxidizing agents (remove e- from other species) during cellular respiration |
| Components of ATP | nitrogenous base, ribose sugar + 3 phosphate groups (ATP is a nucleotide) |
| Describe hydrolysis reaction of ATP | a phosphate bond is broken in ATP using water, releaseing the chemical energy stored in the bonds (along with an inorganic P + ADP) driving work |
| General equation of aerobic cellular respiration | C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP |
| Oxidation vs. reduction reaction | oxidation = loss of electrons + reduction = gain of electrons; LEO says GER |
| Components + function of NAD+ | picks up electrons during food breakdown and donates then to the electron transport chain to create energy. made of nicotinamide; adenine + phosphate linkage |
| Components + function of FAD | also an e- carrier. made of FMN, AMP + a phosphate bridge |
| NAD+ vs. NADH and FAD vs. FADH2 | NAD + FAD = oxidized + empty e- carrier NADH + FADH2 = reduced + carrying e- |
| a-glucose vs. b-glucose | a: points down; in line with 6' carbon b: points up; not in line with 6' carbon |
| How does a disaccharide bond form + what is the name of the covalent bond between monomers | through a dehydration/condensation reaction; OH group of one monomer joins with an H of another, releasing a water molecule. Bond is called a glycosidic bond |
| Glycogen based on: 1. monosaccharides 2. structure 3. location 4. function | made of a-glucose; highly branched; found in animal cells; short term energy storage in animals |
| Cellulose based on: 1. monosaccharides 2. structure 3. location 4. function | made of b-glucose; unbranched chains; found in plant cell walls; structural support in plant cell walls |
| What is the addition of a phoshate molecule called? | phosphorylation |
| What is glycosis? | the first step of cellular respiration, a ten step metabolic pathway that splits glucose into 2 molecules of a 3 carbon sugar called pyruvate. products = 2 ATP, 2 NADH + 2 pyruvate |
| what are the 3 phases of glycolysis + where do they occur? | Energy investment, cleavage + energy payoff phase; happens in the cytoplasm |
| Extra glycolysis notes: | 2 atps are used to destabilze the glucose, net prod. of 2 ATP; its regulated by feedback inhibition (when ATP levels are high it binds to a regulatory site + inhibits the enzyme) ATP is unstable so u dont want it to build up; e- lost to NADH |
| cellular respiration definition | breakdown of organic molecules to obtain energy, frequently requiring O2 |
| During glycolysis, how many ATP molecules are consumed, produced + net yield of ATP | 2 are consumed + 4 are produced so the net yield is 2 ATP |
| What other energy rich molecules is produced during glycoylsis and how? | NADH (high energy e- carrier) + pyruvate |
| What is pyruvate processing? | in the presence of O2 pyruvate enters the mitochrondrian (before citric acid cycle can begin, it must be converted to acetyl CoA) (oxidation of pyruvate) (part of citric acid cycle) |
| extra pyruvate processing notes: | happens in mitochrindra matrix, 1 carbon is lost to CO2, 1 electron lost to NADH + no ATP is produced |
| 4 stages of cellular respiration | glycolysis, pruvate processing, citric acid/krebs cycle, + oxidative phosphorylation (e- transport chain + chemiosmosis) |
| What is the citric acid cycle/krebs cycle/tricarboxylic acid cycle? | 2nd step of cellular respiration, 8 step cyle that extracts/collects the energy still contained in the pyruvates. oxidizes acetyl CoA to produce celluar energy |
| reactants + final product of citric acid cycle (names and # of C) | acetyl CoA (2C) + oxaloacetate (4C) -> citrate (6C) (isocitrate-step after citrate gets its carbons from both oxaloacetate + CoA) |
| why is this metabolic pathway a cycle? | becuase it starts + ends with oxaloacetate. it gets regenerated during the cycle |
| what + how many molecules of each are produced during oxidation of CoA molecule during citric acid cycle? | generates 1 ATP, 3 NADH + 1 FADH2 (+ 2 CO2) |
| extra citric acid cycle notes: | it doesnt directly need O2 but its needed to reoxidize NADH and FADH+ (glycoylsis is the only stage that can work without O2); Co2 also required to produce ATP; |
| Where does it take place, what happens to the C, what happens in terms of redox reactions + what is the net energy yield per glucose molecule | mitochrondian matrix; lost as CO2, its oxidized + 2 ATP |
| What has been produced so far after glycolysis + citric acid cycle? | 4 ATP, 10 NADH + 2 NADH2 |
| Describe oxidative phosphorylation | consists of the election transport chain + chemiosmosis; @@@ |
| What is the electron transport chain + where does it take place | e- are transferred from NADH or FADH to the e- transport chain; located in the cristae of the mitochondrian. e- are passed through proteins then accepted by O2, forming H2O |
| Which component of chain recieves e- from NADH and which one recives them from FADH2? | complex 1 recieves e- from NADH + complex 2 recieves it from FADH2 |
| How is complex 2 different from 1, 3, and 4? | complex 1, 3 and 4 are proton pumps. 2 just accepts e from FADH2 and passes it to the intermembrane space. complex 1 accepts e- from NADH; carriers alernate reduced + oxidized states as they accept + donate e-, e- drop in free energy as they go down chain |
| How do the enzymatic complexes use energy? | they use energy to lower the activation energy required for chemical reactions to proceed which speeds up metabolic processes |
| What is the role of O2 in oxidative phosphorylation? | it is the final electron acceptor in the e- transport chain. accepts low energy e-, binds w/ H to form water, allowing chain to keep working + ATP to generate |
| explain origin of the 30-32 ATP molecules produced during aerobic cellular respiration | 2 from glycolysis, 2 from the citric acid cycle + 26-28 from oxidative phosphorylation/the etc |
| What is chemiosmosis? | the use of a hydrogen ion gradient to make ATP |
| Purpose of e- transport chain (also look at "key events" on page 166 of notes) | break large free energy from food to O2 into smaller steps that release energy in managable amounts, e- transfer cuases proteins to pump H+ from mito. matrix to the inter. mem. space. generates no ATP |
| How do complexes pump H+ from the mitochondrial matrix intermembrane space | they use the energy released by e- transfer- high H+ gradient outside + low in mito. matrix, storing energy. H+ flows back through ATP synthase |
| NADH vs. FADH2 | NADH passes e- through complex 1 yielding in 2.5 ATP FADH passes e- throuhg complex 2 yielding in 1.5 ATP therefore less energy is released as e- are passed down the protein chain |
| How do cells obtain energy in the absense of oxygen | through anaberobic respiration or fermentation |
| Total ATP from 1 glucose molecule | 32 ATP theoretically produced; could be fewer becuase in some cells the transport of NADH from the cytosol to the mitochondrial matrix leads to the loss of 2 ATP; + the ATP synthesis process is not always perfectly effecient |
| Describe the flow of energy during cellular respiration | glucose -> NADH -> e- transport chain -> proton motive force -> ATP |
| aerobic cellular respiration vs anaerobic cellular respiration vs. fermentation | aerobic: uses O2 to fully break down glucose anaerobic: occurs without oxygen, using a diff. final acceptor to produce less ATP fermentation: breaks down glucose w/o oxygen or e- transport chain, resulting in only 2 ATP via glycolysis |
| Provide example of a final electron acceptor differernt from O2 + an organism that uses it | sulphate; used by sulphate reducing bacteria |
| How is ATP produced during fermentation | produces ATP through only glycolysis (net yield of 2 ATP) |
| Explain relationship between cellular respiration between cellular respiration, other metabolic pathways + thermoregulation | cellular respiration acts as the central pathway between carb metabolism + all other metabolic pathways of a cell; heat is also lost during the process, contributing to thermoregulation |
| Main product breakdown products of proteins + lipids + how are those breakdown products used as fuel in cellular respiration | Proteins -> amino acids + lipids -> fatty acids and glycerol; and they are cellular respiration intermediates/fuel |
| Why is it beneficial for a cell to have a common pathway to metabolise carbs, proteins + lipids | it is more effiecient + the cell can use multiple fuels |
| what is the metabolic rate of an organism? | the total amount of energy an organism spends per rate of time |
| compare metabolic rates of endotherm + ectotherms + why are they different? | endoterms maintain a speific, stable internal body heat, requiring a higher metabolism ecoterms rely on external/enviromental heat (metabolism will be slower when its colder) |
Created by:
every_august
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