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Biology midterm
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Adhesion | Tendency of water molecules to stick to other polar or charged molecules |
| Glycolysis | The breakdown of glucose to pyruvate, the first stage of cellular respiration |
| Dehydration synthesis reactions | A reaction in which a water molecule is released by the two reacting molecules as a new covalent bond is formed between them. These reactions build large molecules from smaller subunits |
| Osmosis | The net movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane toward the side of higher solute concentration |
| Hydrolysis | A chemical reaction in which a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules by the addition of water |
| Cleavage | The series of rapid mitotic cell division that occur immediately after fertilization, which partitions the zygote into many smaller cells called blastula and sets the stage for gastrulation and later embryonic development |
| Metastasis | Allows malignant cells to invade distant tissues via the bloodstream or lymphatic system, making cancer more dangerous and difficult to treat |
| Sympatric speciation | Describes populations that are in the same geographic location |
| Gene flow | The movement of alleles from one population to another through interbreeding between members of each population |
| Endemic | A species that is native to and restricted to a specific geographical location and found nowhere else naturally |
| Plastids | Doubled membrane organelles found in plant and algal cells that are involved in the synthesis, storage, and sometimes photosynthesis of organic molecules |
| Taxonomy | The science of naming, describing, and classifying organisms into groups based on shared characteristics and evolutionary relationships |
| Mutation | Any heritable change in the genetic material, usually a change in the nucleotide sequence of a gene |
| Allopatric | Describes populations that are geographically separated from each other |
| Gene pool | The total collection of all alleles for all genes present in a population at a given time |
| Binary Fission | An asexual method of reproduction in prokaryotes which involves the replication of the cells DNA, elongation of the cells, and division into two identical cells, allowing rapid population growth |
| Stomata | Small openings or pores on the surface of leaves and stems that allows gas exchange between the plant and the environment, controlled by guard cells |
| Facilitated diffusion | Diffusion across a cell membrane through a transmembrane protein, such as a channel or carrier |
| Prokaryotic | Describes a cell that does not have a nucleus, used to refer collectively to archaeans and bacteria |
| Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) | An organelle composed of a network of membranes that is involved in the synthesis of proteins and lipids |
| Lysosomes | A vesicle derived from the Golgi apparatus that contains enzymes that break down macromolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates |
| Hydrogen bond | An interaction between a hydrogen atom with a slight positive charge and an electronegative atom of another molecule. In the case of water, hydrogen bonds form between the hydrogen atom of one water molecule and oxygen atom of another water molecule |
| Disruptive selection | Increases variation within a population by favoring both extremes and selecting against the average phenotype |
| Phagocytosis | A type of endocytosis in which a cell engulfs large particles, such as debris, bacteria, or other cells. forming a vesicle called phagosome (cell eating) |
| Centrosome | A compact structure that is the microtubule organizing center for animal cells |
| Hypertonic solution | Describes a solution having a higher solute concentration (lower water potential) than other solution |
| Golgi apparatus | An organelle that modifies proteins and lipids produced by the endoplasmic reticulum and acts as a sorting station as they move to their final destinations |
| Anabolism | The set of chemical reactions that build molecules from smaller units utilizing and input of energy, usually in the form of ATP. The reactions result in the net energy storage within cells and the organism |
| Transduction | The transfer of DNA from cell to cell by means of a virus, a form of horizontal gene transfer |
| Hydrolysis | A reaction that adds water across a covalent bond and breaks the covalent bond. These reactions break down larger molecules into smaller, simpler molecules |
| Diffusion | The net movement of molecules from areas of higher to lower concentration of the molecules due to random motion |
| Homolgous structures | Anatomical features in different species that are similar in structure and developmental origin due to shared ancestry, even if they serve different functions |
| Chemiosmosis | The movement of ions, such as hydrogen ions, from a region of higher concentration to a region of low concentration across a selectively permeable membrane, similar to the movement of water by osmosis |
| Sexual selection | A form of selection that promotes traits that increase an individuals ability to find and attract mates |
| Allosteric inhibition | Decreases enzymes function by altering the enzymes conformation when an inhibitor binds at a non-active site, preventing the substrate from effectively binding or being converted to product |
| Catalyst | A compound that increases the rate of a chemical reaction, but emerges from the process unaltered |
| Glycogen | A highly branched polysaccharide composed of glucose monomers, used by animals and fungi as a short-term energy storage molecule |
| Phosphorylation | The addition of a phosphate group to a molecule which can change its activity, function, or energy state. Key regulatory mechanism in cells. the conversion of ADP to ATP |
| CAM plants | Plants that open their stomata at night to take in CO2 and close them during the day, allowing photosynthesis to occur while conserving water |
| Metabolism | The chemical reactions occurring with cells that convert one molecule into another and transfer energy in living organisms |
| Monosaccharides | The simplest form of carbohydrates that provide immediate energy and can be linked together by dehydration synthesis to form disaccharides and polysaccharides |
| Non-polar covalent bonds | A bond that results when electrons are shared equally, or nearly equally, between two atoms |
| Founder effect | A type of genetic drift that occurs when only a few individuals establish a new population |
| Quaternary structure | The level of protein structure that arises from the interaction of two or more polypeptide chains or subunits, each with its own tertiary structure |
| Ligand | A signaling molecule with a molecular shape and distribution of charge that allows it to match up with and bind to a complementary receptor protein |
| Amphipathic | Molecules that have both a polar (hydrophilic) head and a non polar (hydrophobic) tail, allowing them to form structures such as a cell membrane |
| Cohesion | Tendency of water molecules to stick to one another due to hydrogen bonding with one another |
| Amino acids | The subunit of proteins |
| Punctuated equilibrium | The idea that species go through periods of relatively little change, which are interrupted by short periods of rapid change and diversification |
| Somatic cells | Cells that make up the tissues and organs of an organism, except the reproductive (gamete) cells, and are diploid in most eukaryotes, containg two sets of chromosomes |
| Receptor-mediated endocytosis | A type of endocytosis in which a cell uses specific receptor proteins to selectively take in large molecules with high specificity, rather than engulfing random extracellular fluid |
| Analogous structures | Are anatomical features in different species that serve similar functions but evolved independently and don't share a common ancestral origin |
| Ribosomes | A complex structure of RNA and protein that synthesizes proteins from mRNA |
| Gradualism | The idea that species change slowly over time |
| Hypotonic solution | Describes a solution having a lower solute concentration (higher water potential) than another solution |
| Checkpoints | A point of transition between one phase of the cell cycle and the next phase of the cell cycle |
| Post-zygotic barrier | Describes factors that cause the failure of a fertilized egg to develop into a fertile individual |
| Reception | The first step in cell signaling in which a signaling molecule (ligand) binds to a specific receptor on the target cell, triggering a response |
| Eukaryotic | Describes a cell that has a nucleus; used to refer collectively to animals, plants, fungi, and protists |
| Excosytosis | The process in which a vesicle fuses with the cell membrane and empties its contents into the extracellular space or delivers proteins to the cell membrane |
| Polypeptide bonds | A polymer of amino acid connected by peptide bonds |
| Directional selection | Type of natural selection in which individuals with one extreme phenotype have higher fitness than others, causing the populations trait distribution to shift in one direction over time |
| Phospholipid | A type of lipid and a major component of the cell membrane |
| Benign | A tumor or growth that does not invade surrounding tissues or spread to other parts of the body |
| Crossing-over | A process in prophase l in meiosis when each chromatid can break at the chiasma, then connect to a non-sister chromatid. Also know as recombination |
| Isotope | One of two or more forms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons |
| Compounds | Substances made of two or more different elements that are chemically bended together in fixed proportions |
| Vacuole | A membrane-bound organelle present in some cells, including plant and fungal cells, that contain fluid ions, and other molecules; in some cases it absorbs water and contributes to tumor pressure |
| Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium | A state in which allele and genotype frequencies do not change over time, implying the absence of evolutionary forces. It also specifies a mathematical relationship between allele frequencies and genotype frequencies |
| Binomial nomenclature | The system of giving each species a two part scientific name consisting of the genus name (capitalized) and the species name (lowercase) |
| Pinocytosis | A type of endocytosis in which a cell engulfs extracellular fluid and dissolved solutes into tiny vesicles (cell drinking) |
| Tertiary structure | The three-dimensional shape of a single polypeptide chain, usually made up of several secondary structure elements |
| Polar covalent bond | A bond that results when electrons are shared unequally between two atoms |
| Secondary protein structures | The structure that results from hydrogen bonding in the polypeptide backbone. Two kinds of this structure are the alpha helix and the beta sheet |
| Mitosis | The stage of M phase that produces two identical nuclei during the eukaryotic cell cycle |
| Sister chromatids | Two copies of a chromosome resulting from DNA duplication that remain connected at the centromere |
| Heterzygot advantage | Maintains genetic variation in a population because the heterozygote genotype has a survival or reproductive benefit over both homozygotes |
| Krebs cycle | The third stage of cellular respiration, in which acetyl-CoA in broken down and carbon dioxide is released; also called the citric acid cycle |
| Interphase | One of two major phases of the eukaryotic cell cycle, in which the cell copies its DNA ad synthesizes proteins necessary for mitosis |
| Natural selection | A mechanism of evolution that occurs when their genetic variation in a population of organisms and the variants best suite for survival and reproduction in a particular environment contribute disproportionately to future generations. |
| Isomers | Molecules that have the same molecular formula but different structural arrangement of atoms, resulting in different properties |
| Malignant | A tumor or growth that invades surrounding tissues and can spread to other parts of the body, often causing serious health problems |
| Endocytosis | The process in which a vesicle buds off from the cell membrane, bringing material from outside the cell into that vesicle, which can then fuse with other membranes |
| Isotonic | Describes a solution having the same solute concentration (same water potential) as another solution |
| Electronegativity | Difference in the ability of atoms to attract electrons |
| Elements | A chemical that cannot be split into other chemicals |
| Organic | A molecule made of carbon |
| Extinction | The loss of a group of organisms, typically a species |
| Evolution | A change in the genetic makeup of a population over time |
| Secondary messager | An intermediate signaling molecule that amplifies a response inside a cell |
| Response | The final step in cell signaling in which the cell carries out a specific action triggered by a signal, often through changes in gene expression or protein activit |
| Cell plate | The precursor to a plants cells new cell wall, forming along the middle of a dividing cell to separate the cytoplasm of the two daughter cells |
| Molecules | A chemical formed of two or more atoms |
| Hydrophilic | "Water loving"; describes poplar molecules that readily dissolve in water |
| Matter | Makes physical objects |
| Pre-zygotic barries | Describes factors that prevent the fertilization of an egg |
| Cellulose | A structural carbohydrate in plants that gives cell wall strength and rigidity and is not digestible by most animas |
| Active transport | The movement of substances across a cell membrane against a concentration gradient requiring an input of energy |
| Hydrophobic | "Water fearing"; describes non polar molecules that don't dissolve well in water |
| Apoptosis | The genetically programmed death of a cell |
| C4 plants | Plants that use the C4 carbon fixation, changing where the Calvin cycle occurs, to efficiently capture carbon dioxide in hot, dry environments, minimizing photorespiration |
| Overproduction | The tendency of organisms to produce more offspring that the environment can support, leading to competition for limited resources |
| Protien kinase | An enzyme that transfers a phosphate group from ATP to a specific amino acid on a protein, often regulating the proteins activity |
| Ionic bond | A bond in which two ions with opposite electrical charges associate with eachoter |
| Stabilizing selection | Natural selection that favors the average phenotype and selects against both extremes, keeping the population traits relatively constant over time |
| Proein phosphate | An enzyme that removes a phosphate group from a protein, reversing the action of a protein kinase and often turing off the proteins activity |
| Covalent bonds | A bond in which two atoms share a pair of electrons |
| Quorum sensing | Density-dependent production of signal molecules in bacteria that leas to population responses, such as bioluminesecense or DNA uptake |
| Cytokinesis | The stage of M phase in which the cytosol, organelles, and duplicated nuclei from one eukaryotic cell divide into two daughter cells |
| Cell division | The process by which a parent cell gives rise to two daughter cells |
| Bottle neck effect | An extreme, usually temporary, reduction in population size that max result in marked loss of genetic diversity and, in the process genetic drift |
| Calvin cycle | The process in which carbon dioxide is reduces to synthesize carbohydrates with ATP and NADPH as the energy sources |
| Chromosomes | A cellurar structure containing the genetic material in cells, consisting of a single DNA molecule with associated proteins |
| Phylogeny | The history of decent with modification and the accumulation of change over time |
| Genetic drift | A random change in the frequency of an allele due to chance |
| Vestigial structure | A structure that has lost its original function over time and is now much reduced in size |
| Aquaporins | Specialized channel proteins in cell membranes that facilitate the rapid transport of water molecules in and out of cells |
| Starch | A polisaccaride composed of glucose monomers, used by plants as a primary storage form of energy |
| Chromatin | Inside the eukaryotic nucleus chromosomes refers to the assemblage of DNA, RNA, and protein that fills the nucleus |
| Population | All the individuals of a given species that live and reproduce in a particular place; one of several interbreeding groups of organisms of the same species living in the same geographical area |
| Cytoskeleton | An internal protein scaffold that helps cells to maintain their shape |
| Necrosis | A form of cell death caused by injury, infection, or damage, resulting in the uncontrolled breakdown of cell components and ofter triggering inflammation |
| Oxidative phosphorylation | A set of chemical reactions that occurs by passing electrons along and electron transport chain to a final electron acceptor, oxygen, pumping protons across a membrane and using the proton electrochemical gradient to drive the synthesis of ATP |
| Fatty acid | A long chain of carbon attached to a carboy group; three fatty acid chains attached to glycerol form a triacylglycerol, a lipid used for energy storage |
| Primary protein structure | The sequence of amino acids in a peptide or a protein |
| Nucleotide | A subunit of nucleic acids, consisting of a 5-carbon sugar, a nitrogen- containign base, and one or more phosphate groups |
| Locus | The fixed position where a particualar gene or allele is found on a chromosome |
| Variation | The differences in traits or characteristics among individuals within a population, caused by genetic differences and environmental influences |
| Cyclin | A family of several different proteins that are produced in different amounts during different phases of the cell cycle so that they can bind to and regulate cyclin-dependent kinase, thus cuing the progression of the cell cycle |
| Catabolism | The set of chemical reaction that break down molecules into smaller molecules into smaller units and, in the process, produce ATP to meet the energy need of the cell |
| Convergent evolution | The independent evolution of similar traits in different species as a result of similar environments of selective pressure |
| Growth Factors | Binds to specific receptors on target cells, activating signal transduction pathways that regulate the cell cycle and stimulates cell growth, division, or differentiation |
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