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Kingdom Plantae
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Describe plants’ phylogenetic location and closest relative | Domain Eukarya, supergroup Archaeplastida with chlorophytes & charophytes (red & green algae). Land plants and charophytes are sister taxa |
| Describe structure and reproduction of green algae | Unicellular, colonial or multicellular. If environmental conditions are good -> asexual reproduction (mature cell is haploid (n)). If environment is bad -> sexual reproduction (mature cells become gametes & mate with suitable partner to form 2n zygote |
| What do (n) and (2n) refer to? | (n) = haploid; (2n) = diploid |
| Name the main features of land plants that distinguish them from green algae | Alternation of generations - haplodiplontic life cycles, multicellular gametangia, walled spores, apical meristem, cuticle |
| Describe the alternation of generations | Involves the independent cycles of a gametophyte (n) and sporophyte (2n) in all plants; gametophyte produces gametes by meiosis and is free-living in environment; sporophyte creates spores that are released & form gametophyte |
| Define haplodiplontic | Used to describe an organism whose haploid & diploid stages are both multicellular and/or take up equal portions of the organism’s life cycle |
| What is another term for land plants? | Embryophytes |
| Describe gametophyte structure & role in plant’s life cycle | Gametophytes are complex, multicellular structures that protect & produce the gametes; female gametophyte protects embryo from desiccation & provides nutrients as it develops into new sporophyte |
| Why is the alternation of generations important for land plants’ survival? | Spores & gametes are the weakest stage of the life cycle, so in harsh, terrestrial environments, the multicellular gametangia evolved to protect them and ensure the passing of plants’ genes to the next generation. |
| Describe sporophyte structure & role in a VASCULAR plant's life cycle | the main visible structure in vascular plants. A longer-living, diploid phase of life that produces spores regularly helps ensure the survival of the plant's offspring |
| describe differences in size & structure for the gametophyte and sporophyte between non-vascular & vascular plants | in non-vascular plants, the gametophyte is the main visible structure whereas the sporophyte is barely visible; in vascular plants, the gametophyte is a very small (seed, spore) part of the plant and the sporophyte is the main visible structure |
| what are spores? | tiny, unicellular entities; protected & produced by the sporangium. Released by sporangium during plant's life cycle to form into gametophytes in the environment |
| what is the apical meristem? why is it important (how did it help plants move onto land?) | the apical meristem is present in all plants at the tips of stems and roots; area of rapid, endless cellular growth that allows plants to grow indefinitely; they are immobile and need to reach all their nutrients somehow (from sun, air & soil) |
| what is the multicellular gametangia? why is it important (how did it help plants move onto land?) | in seedless plants - grow on (n) multicellular gametophytes. produces male (antheridium) sperm that swim to the female (archegonium); female gametangia nourishes the development of the embryo, protecting it from the harsh terrestrial environment |
| what are walled spores? why are they important (how did they help plants move onto land?) | spores protected by the multicellular sporangia in seedless plants, which grows on the sporophyte and protects (n) spores until they are ready and then releases many at once. all helping to ensure survival of species |
| what struggles did early plant and algae species face while transitioning onto land? | hydration (water isn't everywhere anymore); nutrients (water won't carry nutrients to you); structural support (water can't aid in keeping plant upright anymore to reach sun); capturing & filtering sunlight (on land, face the full intensity of the sun) |
| what advantages did life on land offer? | sunlight is abundant (not filtered thru water, reducing its quality); nutrients are abundant (CO2 more readily available, organic compounds in soil); no predators (land animals were after land plants) |
| describe basic characteristics of a plant's outer layer that helped them on land | cuticle (waxy fat layer over epidermis; prevents water loss); stomata (holes in the cuticle shield that allow gas exchange w air); fungal associations |
| how did the cuticle facilitate the transition of plants onto land? | cuticle in plants is essential to avoid drying out on land and protecting the plant from the elements. Its waxy surface prevents water loss and allows water to slip off of the plant |
| how did fungal associations facilitate the transition of plants onto land? | Fungal associations essentially extend the plants' root systems and provide nutrients in accessible forms by decomposition, as well as helping the plant stay rooted in the ground |
| name the two major groups of land plants | non-vascular plants and vascular plants |
| name the two major groups of vascular plants | seedless and seed plants (either naked seeds (cones) or flowers) |
| describe the advantage of being diploid (gametophyte v. sporophyte) | diploid forms have two halves of their genome (2n); if one is faulty or not suited to environment, (n) dies and (2n) can survive; the more genetic information an organism has = better chance at surviving in the environment (more chance for adaptation) |
| describe the evolution of plants in 3 main events | 1. origin of land plants (cuticle, stomata, fungal associations) 2. vascular plants (supportive structures & roots = grow taller, reach more light & nutrients) 3. seed plants (in seedless plants, water still required for fertilization) |
| describe main features of plants that distinguish them from other organisms | plants are multicellular eukaryotic autotrophic (photosynthetic) organisms with cellulose cell walls, multicellular gametangia, apical meristems & walled spores |
| names of 3 most common phyla of nonvascular land plants (common & scientific) | Bryophyta (mosses), Marchantiophyta or Hepatophyta (liverworts), and Anthocerotophyta (hornworts) |
| what characteristics of nonvascular land plants are thought to have contributed to their small size? | lack of roots for absorbing water & minerals from soil; lack of lignin-reinforced conducting cells (vascular tissues) |
| describe ecological importance of mosses | mosses slow down erosion; store moisture & soil nutrients; provide shelter for small animals & other plants; food for herbivores; often the first colonizers of an area; grow well in hostile environments (ex. tundra); symbiotic w nitrifying bacteria |
| describe importance of seedless plants for humans | used as tools (soil conditioner), fuel (peat moss is renewable), medicine; ferns are favoured house plants, fiddleheads popular cuisine; seedless plants sensitive to air pollution & used to measure air quality |
| what are 3 structures that vascular plants have that nonvascular plants don't, and why are they important? | 1. roots (anchor in soil & absorb nutrients) 2. leaves (improved photosynthetic efficiency w more surface area & chloroplasts, some are modified sporophylls) 3. stems (rigid structural support - upright & grow towards sunlight) |
| name the ten phyla of extant plants | hepatophyta, bryophyta, lycophyta, pterophyta, ginkgophyta, cycadophyta, gnetophyta, coniferophyta, anthophyta (angiosperms) |
| name the two phyla of non-vascular plants | bryophyta and hepatophyta |
| what are the distinctive characteristics of non-vascular plants? | no vascular system; very short; no true roots, stems or leaves; some have cuticle & stomata; need wet substrate & water to grow & reproduce; small, short-living and dependent sporophyte, large & long-living gametophyte |
| haploid (n) is the best developed stage in non-vascular plants. (True/False) | true |
| how do bryophytes transport substances around? | do not have vascular tissues, instead use cell-by-cell diffusion |
| the gametophyte grows on top of the sporophyte in non-vascular plants. (True/False) | false. gametophyte supports sporophyte |
| bryophytes are the real mosses. (True/False) | false. bryophytes = non-vascular plants - bryophyta & hepatophyta |
| describe differences between phylum bryophyta & phylum hepatophyta and give an example for each | bryophyta: upright standing with cuticle & stomata (ex. moss); hepatophyta: flattened, without cuticle & stomata (ex. liverwort) |
| name the two phyla of seedless vascular plants | lycophyta & pterophyta (or monilophyta) |
| what are the distinctive characteristics of seedless vascular plants? | vascular system; can be very tall; roots (rhizome or absent); leaves (megaphylls, microphylls, or absent); sporophylls (sori or strobilis); small, independent gametophyte, large and independent sporophyte |
| what are sporophylls? | specialized sporangia-carrying leaves |
| describe differences between phylum lycophyta & pterophyta and give an example for each | lycophyta: microphyll leaves (small w 1 central vein) and strobilis (separate sporophylls alongside vegetative structures), ex. club moss; pterophyta: megaphyll leaves (large w branched veins) and sori (small bumps on underside of leaves), ex. lady fern |
| delete this card!!!!! | mature sporophyte (2n) produces sporangium -> meiosis -> spores (n) released -> spore germinates into gametophyte (n) -> fertilization between antheridium & archegonium -> zygote (2n) -> new sporophyte grows on gametophyte |
| describe basic structure of a seed | The seed consists of a toughened coat, the endosperm with food reserves, and at the center, the well-protected embryo |
| in relation to life history of plant, what is the function of the seed? | The seed protects the plant's genes and ensures they pass on to the next generation |
| describe the evolutionary advantages of seeds | may remain dormant until conditions are favourable for germination; have supply of stored food; may be transported long distances by wind or animals; plant reproduction is independent from water; protects development of embryo within seed |
| define terms: megaspore, microspore, cotyledon | megaspore (n) - female gamete protected in a seed; microspore (n) - male gamete, usually a pollen grain; cotyledon - leaf-life organ that transmits food reserves from storage site inside seed to developing embryo |
| describes disadvantages of seeds | more expensive (takes more resources, energy and time) to grow |
| name the phyla of seed plants | ginkgophyta, cycadophyta, gnetophyta, coniferophyta, anthophyta (angiosperms) |
| name the two groups of seed plants and what distinguishes them | gymnosperms (naked-seed plants with cones) and angiosperms (flowers & fruits as specialized reproductive structures) |
| name the 4 phyla of gymnosperms and what types of plants are included in each | Cycadophyta (Cycads), Ginkgophyta (Ginkgo blioba), Gnetophyta (Gnetum, Welwitschia, Ephedra), Coniferophyta (pines, hemlocks, cedars, yew, etc.) |
| what are the distinctive characteristics of naked-seed plants? | vascular system; largest living organisms; well-developed roots & stems w secondary growth & branches; needle-like or scaly leaves, mostly evergreen; sporangia in ovulate & pollen cones; microscopic gametophyte, large & long-living sporophyte |
| describe distinguishing features of cycadophyta | ex. cycads; live in tropical environments; male & female plants produce male & female cones; palm-like compound leaves |
| describe distinguishing features of ginkgophyta | one genus: Ginkgo biloba; fan-like, simple deciduous leaves; separate male & female plants; used in many medicines |
| describe distinguishing features of gnetophyta | 3 living dissimilar genera: Ephedra (grass-like shrub), Gnetum (trees, shrubs, vines) & Welwitschia (grows only 2 leaves that keep growing on top of decomposing parts) - unresolved phylogeny; live in arid, rocky areas |
| describe distinguishing features of coniferophyta | evergreens ex. douglas fir, western red cedar, western hemlock, pacific yew; lignified cones; tallest trees; thrive in harsh environments - arid, cold, or high altitude |
| describe key features of gymnosperms that enabled them to spread further onto land & colonize arid areas | evergreens continue low levels of photosynthesis thru winter & regrow in spring; deciduous lose leaves each cold & regrow in spring, enabling shed of parasites & nourish the soil; most gymnosperms have needle-like leaves that reduce water loss |
| functions of flowers and fruits in angiosperms | flowers: specialized reproductive organs that protect ovules & facilitate pollination (accumulate traits that maximize pollination); & fruits: structures that protect seeds & facilitate their dispersal (specialized to animals) |
| what are the 2 categories that divide the angiosperms and what primary feature was the basis for this distinction? | monocots and eudicots; divided by number of cotlyedons (1 or 2) |
| what are the distinctive characteristics of angiosperms? what phylum are they part of? | most abundant (90% of all plants); have flowers & fruits; highly variable in size; well-developed roots, stems & leaves; well-developed vascular system; phylum anthophyta |
| characteristics of monocots in terms of: # of cotyledons, leaves, vascular tissue, roots, pollen grain, # of flower organs | 1 cotyledon; parallel leaf venations; scattered vascular tissue; fibrous roots; 1 opening in pollen grain; flower organs in multiples of 3 |
| characteristics of eudicots in terms of: # of cotyledons, leaves, vascular tissue, roots, pollen grain, # of flower organs | 2 cotyledons; netlike leaf venations; vascular tissue arranged in ring; taproot; 3 openings in pollen grain; flower organs in multiples of 4 or 5 |
| describe the 3 types of tissues found in every plant organ in terms of location & function | 1.dermal tissue: protection & exchange of substances at specified locations 2.ground tissue: sit of photosynthesis, support for vascular tissue, store water & sugars 3. vascular tissue: transports water, minerals & sugars to different parts of plant |
| what are the tissue components that compose each tissue system? | dermal tissue - epidermis; ground tissue - parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma; vascular tissue - xylem & phloem |
| describe parenchyma in location, structure and function | thin-walled living cells found in the stem, the root, the inside of the leaf, and the pulp of fruit; complete metabolic functions (ex. photosynthesis); help repair & heal wounds; capable of becoming embryonic tissue and producing other cells |
| describe collenchyma in location, structure and function | living, irregularly thickened cells found in the cortex of stem of young plants; provide flexible support to the stem & leaves |
| describe sclerenchyma in location, structure and function | very thick, dead cells; found around vascular bundles of stems; provide rigid support with deposits of lignin in their cell walls |
| describe xylem in location, structure and function | dead, very thick with a secondary lignin wall; found in vascular bundles; provide rigid support to vascular bundles & carry water and minerals from the root upwards |
| describe phloem in location, structure and function | living cells with interconnected cell walls that form sieve plates; found in the vascular bundles and carry substances (mostly sugar) produced by the plant to other areas of the plant |
| describe the epidermis in location, structure and function | 1 cell-layer thick with scales or hairs surrounding the outside of the plant; protects interior |
| describe the general order in which tissues show up (from middle -> out) | Parenchyma -> xylem (larger, thicker cells) -> phloem (supporting xylem, smaller) -> sclerenchyma (thick, shielding phloem & xylem) -> collenchyma (irregularly thickened, closer to epidermis) -> epidermis (thin, 1 cell layer) |
| which of the 5 cell types are alive at maturity? which are dead? what implications does this have on the role these cells play in a tissue system? | living cells: Parenchyma, collenchyma and phloem; dead cells: sclerenchyma and xylem; Living cells are able to transport substances and perform necessary metabolic functions for the plant's continued survival |
| why are plants capable of indefinite growth? | thanks to their meristems - small mitotically active zones of cells found at the ends of plants, made of undifferentiated cells that continue to proliferate throughout the life of the plant, give rise to all the specialized tissues of the organism |
| two types of meristems that a plant can have & what growth they contribute to | apical meristems: found at shoot or root tip, increases the length/aerial growth of plant thru primary growth; lateral meristems: vascular cambium and in woody plants, cork cambium, around outsides of stem and increase girth thru secondary growth |
| how does the type and organization of primary tissues differ between the young stems of a typical monocot and eudicot? | monocots: vascular tissue is scattered in bundles of xylem and phloem surrounded by ground tissue eudicots: vascular tissue arranged in a ring around the outside of the plant with xylem facing the pith and phloem facing the sclerenchyma |
| what is secondary growth? in what types of plants does it occur? | secondary growth mostly occurs in coniferophyta, gingkophyta & some eudicot plants as they age to increase the girth of the stem, providing tough support and protection and allowing these plants to grow taller |
| what is the vascular cambium? what is its role in secondary growth? | vascular cambium is embryonic tissue in-between the primary xylem & phloem; the cambium cells divide and form secondary xylem to the inside, and secondary phloem to the outside which causes the thickening of the stem seen in secondary growth |
| describe the process of secondary growth | 1.parenchyma grows & forms ring of cambium 2.new (secondary) xylem & phloem grow inside of the existing (primary) xylem & phloem, splitting the primary xylem & phloem 3.epidermis stretches and starts cracking 4.parenchyma forms cork cambium forms periderm |
| how does tissue organization in eudicots relate to secondary growth in stems? | the ring arrangement of vascular tissue in eudicots allows it to very smoothly expand outward by forming cambium rings of xylem and phloem that stack on top of each other |
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