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Bio A&P
Biology Anatomy & Physiology Chapter 1-17
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| The study of the structure of an organism and the relationships of its parts. | Anatomy |
| The study of the functions of living organisms and their parts. | Physiology |
| The fundamental organizational unit of life. | The cell |
| What are the two main subdivisions of the body? | Axial & appendicular |
| What does the term 'bilateral symmetry' mean? | A term meaning that right and left sides of the body are mirror images |
| What is the standard reference position for anatomical descriptions called? | Anatomical position |
| What plane divides the body into right and left sides? | Sagittal plane |
| What plane divides the body into front and back portions? | Frontal (coronal) plane |
| What plane divides the body into upper and lower portions? | Transverse (horizontal) plane |
| What are the two main body cavities in the ventral cavity? | Thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities |
| What cavities are included in the dorsal body cavity? | Cranial and spinal cavities |
| What term is used to describe structures on the same side of the body? | Ipsilateral |
| What term is used to describe structures on opposite sides of the body? | Contralateral |
| What is the chemical level of organization? | The levels involve atoms, molecules, and macromolecules |
| What is the cellular level of organization? | The level where cells are the smallest living units of structure and function |
| What is the tissue level of organization? | An organization of similar cells specialized to perform a certain function |
| What is the organ level of organization? | An organization of several different kinds of tissues to perform a specific function |
| What is the system level of organization? | An organization of varying numbers and kinds of organs to perform complex functions |
| What is the highest level of organization? | Organism level |
| What is the term for a theory that has an unusually high level of confidence? | A law |
| What is the term for wasting effects of advancing age? | Atrophy |
| What is the study of cells called? | Cytology |
| What is the study of tissues called? | Histology |
| What is the name given to terms based on a person's name, and why are they avoided in official lists? | Eponyms; they are not descriptive and vary by location. |
| What is the key concept that unifies the study of anatomy and physiology? | The principle of complementarity of structure and function |
| Which major body cavity contains the pleural and pericardial cavities?" | The thoracic cavity |
| Which plane divides the body into symmetrical right and left halves? | Midsagittal (or median sagittal) plane |
| What term refers to the trunk and includes the head and neck? | Axial subdivision |
| What type of anatomy studies body structures by systems? | Systemic anatomy |
| What is the scientific process that includes a hypothesis, experiments, and a resulting theory? | Scientific inquiry (or scientific method) |
| Who coined the term 'homeostasis'? | Walter B. Cannon |
| What is a set point in the context of homeostasis? | The normal value for a physiological variable |
| What is the name for the specific sensory component in a homeostatic control mechanism? | Sensor mechanism |
| What part of the homeostatic control mechanism integrates information and initiates a response? | Integrating or control center |
| What part of the homeostatic control mechanism directly influences controlled variables? | Effector mechanism |
| What are the two main types of feedback control systems? | Positive and negative feedback |
| How do negative feedback control systems function? | They are inhibitory and produce an action opposite to the change that activated the system. |
| What is the primary effect of negative feedback loops on the body's internal environment? | Stabilization |
| How do positive feedback control systems function? | They are stimulatory and amplify or reinforce the change that is occurring |
| Give an example of a positive feedback loop in the human body. | Childbirth, blood clotting |
| What is the primary effect of positive feedback loops on the body's internal environment? | They can be disruptive and produce destabilizing effects. |
| What is a feed-forward control system? | A system where information flows ahead to another process to trigger a change in anticipation of an event. |
| What is intracellular control? | Regulation within cells, involving genes and enzymes. |
| What is intrinsic control (autoregulation)? | Regulation within tissues or organs, using chemical signals or other built-in mechanisms. |
| What is extrinsic control? | Regulation from organ to organ, using nerve signals or hormones |
| Give an example of an intrinsic control mechanism. | Local vasodilation in a working muscle |
| Give an example of an extrinsic control mechanism involving hormones. | The release of insulin to regulate blood sugar. |
| What is the term for the efficiency of homeostatic mechanisms? | Homeostatic efficiency |
| During what period of life is homeostatic efficiency highest? | Young adulthood |
| What is the sum of all physical and chemical reactions in the body called? | Metabolism |
| What is the name for the condition where a feedback loop fails to maintain a constant internal environment? | Homeostatic imbalance or disease |
| Why are negative feedback control systems more common than positive feedback control systems? | Because they are responsible for maintaining the stability of homeostasis. |
| What is the typical effect of a negative feedback control system? | To return a variable to its normal set point |
| What does the term 'autopoiesis' mean in the context of living organisms? | The principle that living organisms are self-organized and self-maintaining. |
| What physiological processes are often regulated by negative feedback loops? | Body temperature, blood pressure, and blood glucose levels |
| What is the mechanism called when the flow of information constantly moves back from the sensor to the integrator? | Feedback loop |
| What are the three levels of homeostatic control? | Intracellular, intrinsic, and extrinsic |
| What happens to the efficiency of homeostatic mechanisms as a person ages? | It decreases. |
| The body's ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment is crucial for what? | Survival and proper cell function |
| In what periods of life might homeostatic mechanisms be less efficient? | Infancy/childhood and old age |
| What is matter? | Anything that has mass and occupies space. |
| What are the two components of matter? | Elements and compounds |
| What is the simplest form of matter? | An element |
| What is the term for a substance that cannot be broken down into two or more different substances? | An element |
| What is an atom composed of? | Protons, neutrons, and electrons |
| What is the charge of a proton, neutron, and electron? | Proton: positive; Neutron: neutral; Electron: negative |
| Where are protons and neutrons located in an atom? | In the nucleus |
| Where are electrons located in an atom? | In the electron cloud surrounding the nucleus |
| What is the atomic number of an element? | The number of protons in an atom's nucleus |
| What is the mass number of an element? | The number of protons plus the number of neutrons in the nucleus |
| What are isotopes? | Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons. |
| What is a radioactive isotope? | An unstable isotope that undergoes nuclear breakdown and emits radiation. |
| What is a molecule? | Two or more atoms joined together. |
| What is a compound? | A substance formed by atoms of two or more elements. |
| What are the two main types of chemical bonds? | Ionic and covalent bonds |
| How is an ionic bond formed? | By the transfer of electrons between atoms. |
| How is a covalent bond formed? | By the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. |
| What are the three basic types of chemical reactions in physiology? | Synthesis, decomposition, and exchange reactions |
| What is a synthesis reaction? | A reaction that combines two or more substances to form a more complex substance. |
| What is a decomposition reaction? | A reaction that breaks down a substance into two or more simpler substances. |
| What is an exchange reaction? | A reaction involving both decomposition and synthesis. |
| What is metabolism? | All the chemical reactions that occur in body cells. |
| What is the difference between catabolism and anabolism? | Catabolism breaks down complex compounds, while anabolism builds them up. |
| What is the most important inorganic compound in the body? | Water |
| What is the pH scale used for? | To measure the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution. |
| What term describes weak attractions between molecules resulting from unequal charge distribution? | Hydrogen bonding |
| What is a substance that releases a hydrogen ion (H + ) in solution? | An acid (proton donor) |
| What is a substance that dissociates to yield a hydroxide ion (OH−) or accepts a H + ? | A base (proton acceptor) |
| What is the term for compounds that minimize changes in hydrogen ion concentration in a solution? | Buffers |
| What term is used to describe a molecule that has regions with partial electrical charges? | Polar molecule |
| What distinguishes an organic molecule from an inorganic molecule? | Organic molecules contain carbon and at least one C-C or C-H bond. |
| What are the four major classes of organic molecules found in the body? | Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids |
| What are the simplest form of carbohydrates? | Monosaccharides (simple sugars) |
| What are disaccharides and polysaccharides composed of? | Two or more simple sugars bonded together. |
| What is the most abundant type of lipid in the body? | Triglycerides (fats) |
| Glycerol and fatty acids | |
| What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids? | Saturated fatty acids have all available bonds filled; unsaturated have one or more double bonds. |
| What is the unique property of phospholipids that allows them to form cell membranes? | They have a water-soluble (hydrophilic) end and a fat-soluble (hydrophobic) end. |
| A steroid nucleus | |
| What are prostaglandins? | Commonly called tissue hormones, they are produced by cell membranes throughout the body. |
| What are proteins composed of? | Amino acids |
| How many essential amino acids are there, and why are they called 'essential'? | Eight; they cannot be produced by the human body. |
| What is the term for the organized structure of a protein? | Protein organization (primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary) |
| What is the highest level of protein organization called? | Quaternary structure |
| What is the native state of a protein? | The final functional shape of a protein molecule. |
| What does it mean for a protein to be 'denatured'? | It has lost its shape and therefore its function. |
| What is the primary function of DNA? | It functions as the molecule of heredity. |
| What are the two types of nucleic acids? | Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) |
| What are the four nitrogenous bases in DNA? | Cytosine, thymine, guanine, and adenine |
| What are the four nitrogenous bases in RNA? | Adenine, uracil, guanine, and cytosine |
| What is the function of ATP? | It serves as the energy currency of cells. |
| What is the energy currency of the cell? | Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) |
| What are combined forms of molecules, like a lipid and a protein, called? | Lipoproteins |
| What is a 'glycoprotein'? | A molecule made of a carbohydrate and a protein. |
| What is the name of the chemical reactions that join simple sugars together? | Dehydration synthesis |
| What type of nucleic acid is composed of a single, non-coiled chain of nucleotides? | RNA |
| What process is central to anabolism and builds larger molecules? | Dehydration synthesis |
| What protein structure is determined by the number, kind, and sequence of amino acids? | Primary structure |
| What category of lipid is cholesterol found in? | Steroids |
| What is the non-coding protective segment of DNA at the end of a chromosome? | Telomere |
| What is the central idea of the cell theory? | The cell is the fundamental organizational unit of life. |
| What are the three main components of a typical cell? | Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus |
| What separates the cell from its surrounding environment? | The plasma membrane |
| What is the name of the gel-like substance inside the cell? | Cytoplasm |
| What is the collective name for the small structures within the cell that perform specific functions? | Organelles |
| What is the name of the membrane that encloses the nucleus? | Nuclear envelope |
| The fluid mosaic model | |
| What are the two layers of the cell membrane primarily composed of? | Phospholipid molecules |
| What are the two types of endoplasmic reticulum? | Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) |
| What organelle is responsible for synthesizing proteins? | Ribosomes |
| Where are ribosomes found in the cell? | Attached to the rough ER and free in the cytoplasm |
| What organelle processes, packages, and secretes proteins and lipids? | The Golgi apparatus |
| What organelle is known as the 'digestive system' of the cell? | Lysosomes |
| What organelle is known as the 'power plant' of the cell? | Mitochondrion |
| What is the primary function of the nucleus? | To house the cell's genetic material (DNA) and control cell activities. |
| What are the three types of cell fibers that make up the cytoskeleton? | Microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules |
| What is the function of microfilaments? | They serve as cellular muscles, allowing for movement and shape changes. |
| What is the function of microtubules? | They move things around inside the cell. |
| What is the main function of the centrosome? | It coordinates the building and breaking of microtubules. |
| What are the finger-like projections on the surface of some cells that increase surface area for absorption? | Microvilli |
| What are the hair-like projections that move substances along the cell surface? | Cilia |
| What are the three main types of direct cell connections? | Desmosomes, gap junctions, and tight junctions |
| What are desmosomes? | Connections that act like 'spot welds' to hold adjacent cells together. |
| What are gap junctions? | Membrane channels that join the cytoplasm of two cells, allowing for communication. |
| What are tight junctions? | Collars of tightly fused material that prevent substances from passing between cells. |
| Ribosomes attached to its surface | |
| Which organelle is primarily involved in detoxification and lipid synthesis? | Smooth ER |
| What is chromatin? | The thread-like mass of DNA and protein in the nucleus of a non-dividing cell. |
| What are the specialized proteins that act as molecular motors to move structures within the cell? | Dynein, myosin, and kinesin |
| What is the fluid component of the cytoplasm? | Cytosol |
| What is the term for all the chemical reactions that occur in a cell? | Metabolism |
| What is the difference between catabolism and anabolism? | Catabolism breaks down molecules and releases energy; anabolism builds molecules and consumes energy. |
| What are enzymes? | Chemical catalysts that reduce the activation energy needed for a reaction. |
| What is the specific location on an enzyme where a substrate binds? | The active site |
| What is the role of an enzyme in a chemical reaction? | To speed up the rate of the reaction. |
| How is the name of an enzyme typically identified? | By the suffix '-ase'. |
| What is the process of breaking down glucose to release energy called? | Cellular respiration |
| What are the three main pathways of cellular respiration? | Glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport system |
| What is the process of moving substances through cell membranes without expending energy? | Passive transport |
| What are the two main types of passive transport? | Simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion |
| What is diffusion? | The movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. |
| What is osmosis? | The diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane. |
| What is facilitated diffusion? | The movement of molecules across a membrane with the help of channel or carrier proteins. |
| What type of cellular transport requires metabolic energy from the cell? | Active transport |
| What are the two main types of vesicular transport? | Endocytosis and exocytosis |
| What is the process of a cell engulfing large particles or other cells called? | Phagocytosis |
| What is the process of a cell taking in liquids called? | Pinocytosis |
| What is the process of expelling substances from the cell called? | Exocytosis |
| What type of proteins are often referred to as 'pumps'? | Membrane transporters that use energy for active transport. |
| What happens to a cell placed in a hypotonic solution? | It swells as water flows into it. |
| What happens to a cell placed in a hypertonic solution? | It shrivels as water flows out of it. |
| What happens to a cell placed in an isotonic solution? | There is no net movement of water, and the cell volume remains stable. |
| What are the protein structures in the cell membrane that act as channels for water? | Aquaporins |
| What are allosteric effectors? | Chemicals or physical agents that affect enzyme action by changing the shape of the enzyme molecule. |
| How do cells get rid of abnormal or misfolded proteins? | Through proteasomes, which break them down. |
| What is the primary role of the electron transport system? | To transfer energy from electrons to ATP. |
| What is the term for the sum of the chemical reactions that break down complex compounds into simpler ones? | Catabolism |
| What membrane protein allows certain large molecules to pass through the membrane when assisted by a specific protein? | Carrier-mediated transport protein |
| The energy required for passive transport comes from what? | The concentration gradient (or kinetic energy of molecules) |
| What molecule is produced during anaerobic respiration in the absence of oxygen? | Lactate/Lactic Acid (or pyruvate) |
| What is the central anabolic pathway in cells? | Protein synthesis |
| What is a gene? | A segment of a DNA molecule that contains the code for synthesizing one RNA molecule. |
| What is the difference between coding RNA and non-coding RNA? | Coding RNA (mRNA) is a transcript for a polypeptide; non-coding RNA (rRNA, tRNA) regulates processes. |
| What is the process of forming mRNA along a DNA strand called? | Transcription |
| What is the process of creating a polypeptide chain from an mRNA template called? | Translation |
| What structures are responsible for splicing mRNA transcripts? | Spliceosomes |
| What are codons and anticodons? | A codon is a three-base sequence on mRNA; an anticodon is a complementary three-base sequence on tRNA. |
| What is the function of a chaperone molecule? | To help newly formed polypeptide chains fold into their correct shape. |
| What are telomeres, and what is their function? | Non-coding protective segments of DNA at the ends of a chromosome. |
| What is the name of the enzyme that can rebuild telomeres? | Telomerase |
| What is the growth phase of the cell cycle called? | Interphase |
| What are the three sub-phases of interphase? | First growth phase (G1), DNA synthesis phase (S), and second growth phase (G2) |
| What happens during the S phase of the cell cycle? | The cell replicates its DNA. |
| What are the two new strands of DNA produced during replication called? | Chromatids |
| What is the point of attachment for chromatids? | The centromere |
| What are the four distinct phases of mitotic cell division? | Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase |
| What happens during prophase? | The nuclear envelope falls apart and chromatids coil up to form chromosomes. |
| What happens during metaphase? | Chromosomes align at the equatorial plate of the cell. |
| What happens during anaphase? | The centromere of each chromosome splits, and chromatids are pulled to opposite poles. |
| What happens during telophase? | DNA returns to its original form, and the cell divides. |
| What are the enzymes that drive the cell through the phases of its life cycle? | Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) |
| What are regulatory proteins that control these enzymes called? | Cyclins |
| How does aging affect cell growth and development? | It creates changes in cell numbers and their ability to function effectively. |
| What is the term for the loss of muscle mass that occurs with aging? | Atrophy |
| What is the function of RNA interference (RNAi)? | It protects the cell against viral infection by silencing gene expression. |
| What structure allows the impulse to move deep into the cell in muscle fibers? | T-tubules |
| What is the process of gene duplication called? | DNA replication |
| What part of the ribosome moves along the mRNA during translation? | Ribosomal subunits (large and small) |
| What happens to organelles and the plasma membrane during the G1 phase? | They are replicated/synthesized. |
| What is the final protein resulting from all synthesis steps called? | Proteome |
| What is histology? | The branch of microscopic anatomy that studies tissues. |
| What are the four principal types of tissue? | Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue |
| What is the non-living material found between cells in a tissue called? | Extracellular matrix (ECM) |
| What is the function of the extracellular matrix (ECM)? | It provides structural support, binds tissues together, and allows for local communication. |
| What are the three primary germ layers from which all tissues develop? | Endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm |
| What is the process of tissue development from germ layers called? | Histogenesis |
| What is the difference between epithelial tissue and connective tissue in terms of cell arrangement? | Epithelial cells are very close together; connective tissue cells are often far apart. |
| How does muscle tissue produce movement and heat? | By contracting (shortening) |
| What is the function of nervous tissue? | To communicate and integrate the various functions of the body. |
| What is the term for the growth of new tissue after an injury? | Regeneration |
| What is the term for the dense, fibrous mass of tissue that replaces damaged tissue? | Scar tissue |
| What is a keloid? | An unusually thick scar. |
| Which tissue types have the greatest ability to regenerate? | Epithelial and connective tissues |
| Which tissue types have a limited capacity to regenerate? | Muscle and nervous tissues |
| What are body membranes? | Thin tissue layers that cover surfaces, line cavities, and divide spaces or organs. |
| What are the two main types of body membranes? | Epithelial membranes and connective tissue membranes |
| What is a cutaneous membrane? | The skin |
| What are serous membranes? | Membranes that line closed body cavities and cover visceral organs. |
| What are mucous membranes? | Membranes that line and protect organs that are open to the exterior of the body. |
| What are synovial membranes? | Connective tissue membranes that line the spaces between bones in joints. |
| What is the tough, flexible protein fiber found in the ECM? | Collagen |
| What are glycoproteins? | Proteins with a few carbohydrate attachments. |
| What is the function of integrins in the cell membrane? | They help connect the ECM components to cells. |
| What is the function of the lamina propria? | It is the fibrous connective tissue underlying mucous epithelium. |
| What is the function of mucins in mucous membranes? | They are proteoglycans that form a double layer of protection against microbes. |
| What are the three types of epithelial membranes? | Cutaneous, serous, and mucous membranes |
| What are the two layers of serous membranes? | Parietal (lines cavity) and Visceral (covers organ) |
| What is the fluid secreted by serous membranes? | Serous fluid |
| What is the primary component of the ECM that gives tissues resilience and elasticity? | Elastin (elastic fibers) |
| What is the body's internal fluid environment, crucial for homeostasis, called? | Extracellular matrix (ECM) or interstitial fluid |
| What are the two main types of epithelial tissue? | Membranous epithelium and glandular epithelium |
| What are the four membrane cell shapes? | Squamous, cuboidal, columnar, and pseudostratified columnar |
| What is the difference between simple and stratified epithelium? | Simple has one cell layer; stratified has multiple layers. |
| What type of epithelium is a single layer of flat cells? | Simple squamous epithelium |
| What type of epithelium lines many glands and ducts? | Simple cuboidal epithelium |
| What type of epithelium is a single layer of tall, column-shaped cells? | Simple columnar epithelium |
| What is the function of goblet cells? | To secrete mucus |
| What type of epithelium is found lining the urinary bladder? | Transitional epithelium |
| What are the three functional types of exocrine glands? | Apocrine, holocrine, and merocrine glands |
| What is the difference between exocrine and endocrine glands? | Exocrine glands have ducts; endocrine glands are ductless and secrete hormones into the blood. |
| What are the four main types of connective tissue? | Fibrous, bone, cartilage, and blood |
| What is the most widely distributed type of fibrous connective tissue? | Loose (areolar) connective tissue |
| What is the primary function of adipose tissue? | To protect, insulate, support, and act as a food reserve. |
| What are the two types of bone tissue? | Compact and cancellous (spongy) |
| What is the name for mature bone cells? | Osteocytes |
| What are the three types of cartilage? | Hyaline, fibrocartilage, and elastic |
| What is the strongest and most durable type of cartilage? | Fibrocartilage |
| What is blood tissue composed of? | A liquid matrix (plasma) and formed elements (red cells, white cells, and platelets) |
| What are the three types of muscle tissue? | Skeletal, smooth, and cardiac |
| What is the difference between voluntary and involuntary muscle? | Voluntary muscle can be controlled consciously; involuntary muscle cannot. |
| What is the unique characteristic of cardiac muscle cells? | They have intercalated disks that connect them. |
| What is the name of the cells in nervous tissue that conduct impulses? | Neurons |
| What are the supporting cells in nervous tissue called? | Neuroglia |
| What are the two processes of a neuron? | An axon and one or more dendrites |
| What is the myelin sheath? | A fatty sheath that insulates the axon and speeds up nerve impulses. |
| What type of gland secretes its product directly through the cell membrane without damaging the cell? | Merocrine gland |
| What type of gland involves the entire cell rupturing to release its secretory product? | Holocrine gland |
| What is the primary component of loose fibrous connective tissue's ECM? | Collagen and elastic fibers |
| What is the dense, tough connective tissue that forms tendons and ligaments? | Dense regular fibrous tissue |
| What type of epithelial cell lining appears to have multiple layers but actually has only one? | Pseudostratified columnar epithelium |
| What is the largest organ of the body? | The skin (integument) |
| What is the average size of the skin's surface area in adults? | 1.6 to 1.9 square meters |
| What are the three main components of the integumentary system? | Skin, hair, nails, and skin glands |
| What are the two primary layers of the skin? | Epidermis and dermis |
| What layer lies beneath the dermis? | The hypodermis (subcutaneous layer) |
| What is the outermost layer of the epidermis called? | Stratum corneum |
| What are the main cells in the epidermis that produce keratin? | Keratinocytes |
| What cells in the epidermis produce pigment? | Melanocytes |
| What is the function of melanocytes? | To produce melanin, which contributes to skin color and protects from UV light. |
| What is the name of the process that allows epidermal cells to migrate to the surface and be shed? | Turnover or regeneration |
| What is a callus? | A thickening of the stratum corneum due to increased cell turnover. |
| What is the primary function of the dermis? | To give strength to the skin and serve as a reservoir for water and electrolytes. |
| What gives skin its toughness and stretchability? | Collagen and elastic fibers in the dermis |
| What is the name of the pigment that can cause a yellowish skin tone? | Beta-carotene |
| What is the bluish skin color caused by a lack of oxygen called? | Cyanosis |
| What are the main functions of the skin? | Protection, sensation, excretion, hormone production (vitamin D), immunity, and temperature regulation. |
| What is the function of sweat glands? | To produce sweat for cooling and excretion of waste. |
| What is the function of sebaceous glands? | To secrete sebum to lubricate hair and skin. |
| What is sebum? | An oily substance secreted by sebaceous glands. |
| What is the name for the glands that produce earwax? | Ceruminous glands |
| What are the two types of sweat glands? | Eccrine and apocrine glands |
| What are the primary elements of hair? | The hair follicle, papilla, root, and shaft |
| What is the part of the nail that is visible called? | The nail body |
| What is the congenital absence of melanin called? | Albinism |
| How is vitamin D produced in the skin? | Exposure of skin to UV light converts 7-dehydrocholesterol to cholecalciferol, a precursor to vitamin D. |
| What is the primary method of heat loss from the skin in high environmental temperatures? | Evaporation (of sweat) |
| What is the most common cell type in the epidermis? | Keratinocytes |
| What layer of the skin is characterized by a high concentration of adipose tissue? | Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer) |
| What is the waterproof protein that fills the cells of the stratum corneum? | Keratin |
| What small muscles attach to hair follicles and cause goosebumps? | Arrector pili muscles |
| What are the five main functions of bones? | Support, protection, movement, mineral storage, and hematopoiesis (blood cell formation). |
| What is hematopoiesis? | The process of blood cell formation. |
| What is the hard, solid tissue that makes up the outer shell of bones? | Compact bone |
| What is the porous, spongy tissue found inside bones, especially at the ends? | Cancellous bone (spongy bone) |
| What is the main shaft of a long bone called? | Diaphysis |
| What are the ends of a long bone called? | Epiphyses |
| What is the strong, fibrous membrane covering the outer surface of a bone? | Periosteum |
| What is the hollow space within the diaphysis of a long bone? | Medullary (marrow) cavity |
| What lines the medullary cavity of a long bone? | Endosteum |
| What is the inorganic salt that contributes to bone's hardness and resistance to mechanical deformation? | Hydroxyapatite |
| What are the mature, inactive bone cells located in the lacunae? | Osteocytes |
| What are the bone cells responsible for building new bone matrix? | Osteoblasts |
| What are the large, multinucleated cells responsible for breaking down bone tissue (resorption)? | Osteoclasts |
| What is the basic structural unit of compact bone? | Osteon (Haversian system) |
| What are the ring layers of bone matrix that make up an osteon? | Lamellae |
| What are the spaces where osteocytes are housed? | Lacunae |
| What connects the lacunae and central canal of an osteon? | Canaliculi |
| What is the process of bone formation called? | Osteogenesis (ossification) |
| What is intramembranous ossification? | Bone formation that occurs within a fibrous membrane (e.g., flat bones of the skull). |
| What is endochondral ossification? | Bone formation that occurs by replacing a cartilage model (e.g., long bones). |
| What is the area where long bone growth in length occurs? | Epiphyseal plate |
| How is the diameter (width) of a bone increased? | Appositional growth (adding new bone to the outside) |
| What is the tough, pliable supportive structure found at bone ends? | Articular cartilage (Hyaline cartilage) |
| What is the primary function of Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) in bone? | To stimulate osteoclasts, increasing blood calcium levels. |
| What is the primary form of marrow found in the medullary cavity of adult long bones? | Yellow marrow (fat) |
| What type of bone formation starts with the differentiation of mesenchymal cells into osteoblasts? | Intramembranous ossification |
| What is the process of increasing calcium and phosphate salts in the bone matrix called? | Calcification |
| What is the spongy, soft connective tissue found in the spaces of cancellous bone? | Red marrow (myeloid tissue) |
| What two main structures protect the bone and contain blood vessels for survival? | Periosteum and endosteum |
| What effect does calcitonin have on blood calcium levels? | It lowers blood calcium levels by inhibiting osteoclasts. |
| What are the three main sections of the axial skeleton? | The skull, the vertebral column, and the thoracic cage |
| Cranial bones (8) and facial bones (14) | |
| What bone is often called the 'keystone' of the cranium because it connects all other cranial bones? | Sphenoid bone |
| What is the only bone in the body that does not articulate with any other bone? | The hyoid bone |
| What part of the vertebral column is composed of 7 bones? | Cervical vertebrae |
| What part of the vertebral column is composed of 12 bones and articulates with the ribs? | Thoracic vertebrae |
| What part of the vertebral column is composed of 5 bones and supports most of the body's weight? | Lumbar vertebrae |
| What is the large, triangular bone formed by the fusion of five vertebrae? | Sacrum |
| What is the scientific name for the tailbone? | Coccyx |
| What type of joint connects the bodies of adjacent vertebrae? | Intervertebral discs (symphyses/cartilaginous joints) |
| What is the inner, gelatinous core of an intervertebral disc called? | Nucleus pulposus |
| What are the main two bones of the thoracic cage? | Sternum (breastbone) and ribs |
| What is the superior portion of the sternum? | Manubrium |
| How many pairs of ribs are there? | 12 pairs |
| What are 'true ribs'? | The first 7 pairs of ribs that attach directly to the sternum via costal cartilage. |
| What are 'false ribs'? | Ribs 8–12, which do not attach directly to the sternum. |
| What are 'floating ribs'? | Ribs 11 and 12, which have no anterior attachment to the sternum or costal cartilage. |
| What are the four curves of the vertebral column? | Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral |
| What is the condition of an exaggerated thoracic curvature (hunchback)? | Kyphosis |
| What is the condition of an exaggerated lumbar curvature (swayback)? | Lordosis |
| What is the bone that contains the external auditory meatus and the mastoid process? | Temporal bone |
| What is the large opening in the occipital bone that allows the spinal cord to connect to the brain? | Foramen magnum |
| What is the common name for the bone that forms the forehead? | Frontal bone |
| What is the only movable bone of the skull? | The mandible |
| What bone forms the posterior/inferior part of the nasal septum? | Vomer bone |
| What are the membrane-filled spaces between the cranial bones of a newborn called? | Fontanels (soft spots) |
| What condition is characterized by a lateral curvature of the spine? | Scoliosis |
| What three bones fuse together to form the sternum? | Manubrium, body, and xiphoid process |
| What two bones form the cheekbone and part of the orbit? | Zygomatic bones |
| What is the second cervical vertebra, which allows head rotation? | Axis (C2) |
| How many bones are in the appendicular skeleton? | 126 bones |
| What two bones form the shoulder girdle? | Clavicle (collarbone) and Scapula (shoulder blade) |
| What is the function of the shoulder girdle? | To connect the upper limb to the axial skeleton. |
| What is the upper arm bone called? | Humerus |
| What two bones make up the forearm? | Radius and Ulna |
| What is the wrist composed of (bone group)? | Carpal bones (8 carpal bones) |
| What group of bones forms the palm of the hand? | Metacarpals (5 metacarpal bones) |
| What bones form the fingers and toes? | Phalanges (14 per hand/foot) |
| What is the largest, strongest bone of the human body? | Femur (thigh bone) |
| What is the scientific name for the kneecap? | Patella |
| What two bones make up the lower leg? | Tibia (shin bone) and Fibula |
| What bone is the weight-bearing bone of the lower leg? | Tibia |
| What is the ankle and upper foot composed of (bone group)? | Tarsal bones (7 tarsal bones) |
| What bone forms the heel? | Calcaneus |
| What bone articulates with the tibia and fibula to form the ankle joint? | Talus |
| What group of bones forms the sole of the foot? | Metatarsals (5 metatarsal bones) |
| What are the two bones that form the pelvic girdle? | The two coxal (hip) bones. |
| What are the three fused bones that form one coxal bone? | Ilium, ischium, and pubis |
| What is the hip socket that articulates with the head of the femur? | Acetabulum |
| What is the key difference in the overall shape of the male pelvis compared to the female pelvis? | The female pelvis is generally wider, shallower, and has a larger pelvic inlet/outlet. |
| What curve is characteristic of the spine in the neck region? | Cervical curve |
| What happens to the skeleton with advancing age? | There is a gradual loss of bone density and strength (osteoporosis). |
| What is the common bone fractured when falling on an outstretched hand? | Clavicle |
| What is the large, triangular bone that forms the prominent part of the shoulder blade? | Scapula |
| What group of bones in the hand is analogous to the metatarsals in the foot? | Metacarpals |
| What bone forms the elbow joint with the humerus? | Ulna (specifically the olecranon process) |
| What bone in the forearm is on the thumb side and rotates during supination/pronation? | Radius |
| What bone is suspended from the clavicle and rib cage and provides the only bony attachment of the arm to the axial skeleton? | Clavicle |
| What is the primary function of the arches in the foot? | To provide shock absorption and support the body's weight. |
| What bone articulates with the sacrum to complete the pelvic girdle? | Ilium (part of the coxal bone) |
| What is a joint (articulation)? | A point of contact between bones. |
| How are joints structurally classified? | By the type of connective tissue that joins the bones (fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial). |
| How are joints functionally classified? | By the degree of movement allowed (synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis, or diarthrosis). |
| What is a synarthrosis joint? | An immovable joint (e.g., sutures of the skull). |
| What is an amphiarthrosis joint? | A slightly movable joint (e.g., intervertebral discs). |
| What is a diarthrosis joint? | A freely movable joint (e.g., the shoulder joint). |
| What is the strongest joint type that allows no movement, like those between cranial bones? | Fibrous joints (specifically, sutures) |
| What are the two types of cartilaginous joints? | Synchondrosis (hyaline cartilage) and symphysis (fibrocartilage). |
| What is the most common and structurally complex joint type? | Synovial joints |
| What are the six structural features common to all synovial joints? | Joint capsule, synovial membrane, articular cartilage, joint cavity, menisci (or articular discs), and ligaments. |
| What fluid lubricates the articulating surfaces of synovial joints? | Synovial fluid |
| What type of angular movement decreases the angle between two bones? | Flexion |
| What type of angular movement increases the angle between two bones? | Extension |
| What is the movement of a limb away from the midline of the body? | Abduction |
| What is the movement of a limb toward the midline of the body? | Adduction |
| What is the pivoting of a bone on its own axis? | Rotation |
| What is the circular motion that combines flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction? | Circumduction |
| What special movement involves turning the sole of the foot inward? | Inversion |
| What special movement involves turning the hand palm-side up? | Supination |
| What type of joint is the knee joint classified as? | A complex diarthrotic hinge joint. |
| What is the function of the menisci (articular discs) in the knee? | To absorb shock and improve the fit between the bones. |
| What type of joint is the elbow joint? | A hinge joint. |
| What type of joint is the shoulder joint? | A ball-and-socket joint. |
| What type of joint is the joint between the carpals and metacarpal of the thumb? | A saddle joint (a highly mobile biaxial joint). |
| What is the term for the measurement of the range of motion (ROM) of a joint? | Goniometry |
| What three main types of synovial joints are based on the number of axes of movement? | Uniaxial (one axis), Biaxial (two axes), and Multiaxial (three or more axes) |
| What are the fibrous connections that join adjacent bones in the skull? | Sutures |
| What type of joint is characterized by a fluid-filled joint cavity? | Synovial joint |
| What are the specialized fluid-filled sacs that cushion joints and facilitate tendon movement? | Bursae |
| What special movement occurs when the sole of the foot turns outward? | Eversion |
| What percentage of total body weight is skeletal muscle? | 40% to 50% |
| What are the three layers of connective tissue covering skeletal muscles? | Epimysium, perimysium, and endomysium |
| What tough connective tissue covers the entire muscle? | Epimysium |
| What connective tissue surrounds bundles of muscle fibers (fascicles)? | Perimysium |
| What delicate connective tissue surrounds individual muscle fibers? | Endomysium |
| What is the less movable point of muscle attachment? | Origin |
| What is the more movable point of muscle attachment? | Insertion |
| What is the primary muscle that directly performs a specific movement? | Prime mover (agonist) |
| What muscle opposes the prime mover? | Antagonist |
| What muscle group stabilizes a joint to make the primary movement more efficient? | Synergists |
| What muscle is responsible for smiling? | Zygomaticus major |
| What muscle is responsible for closing the eye? | Orbicularis oculi |
| What are the four main muscles involved in mastication (chewing)? | Masseter, temporalis, medial pterygoid, and lateral pterygoid |
| What are the main muscles responsible for moving the head/neck? | Sternocleidomastoid and trapezius |
| What is the largest muscle of the thoracic cage, aiding in inspiration? | Diaphragm |
| What axial muscles are involved in forced expiration and trunk rotation/flexion? | External and internal oblique muscles |
| What muscle runs vertically down the anterior abdomen and is a key flexor of the trunk? | Rectus abdominis |
| What muscle group is crucial for maintaining proper posture and spinal extension? | Erector spinae group |
| What type of movement is described by a third-class lever? | Rapid and extensive movement |
| In a third-class lever system, where is the pull (effort) exerted? | Between the fulcrum (joint) and the load |
| What class of lever is most common in the human body? | Third-class lever |
| What type of lever is exemplified by the nodding movement of the head on the neck? | First-class lever |
| What muscles form the pelvic floor and support the pelvic organs? | Levator ani and coccygeus (pelvic floor muscles) |
| What are muscles named according to? | Location, function, shape, direction of fibers, number of heads, size, or attachment points. |
| What is the function of the external intercostal muscles? | To elevate the ribs, aiding in inhalation (inspiration). |
| What is the function of the internal intercostal muscles? | To depress the ribs, aiding in exhalation (expiration). |
| What is the main action of the rectus abdominis? | Flexion of the vertebral column (bending forward). |
| What muscles are responsible for rotating the trunk and bending the torso laterally? | The oblique muscles (internal and external) |
| What muscle originates on the sternum and clavicle and inserts on the mastoid process? | Sternocleidomastoid |
| What three muscles make up the erector spinae group? | Iliocostalis, Longissimus, and Spinalis |
| What is the primary role of appendicular muscles? | To move the upper and lower extremities (locomotion and manipulation). |
| What are the four muscles of the rotator cuff? | Supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, and subscapularis (SITS muscles) |
| What is the function of the rotator cuff muscles? | To stabilize and rotate the head of the humerus in the shoulder joint. |
| What large back muscle is responsible for adduction, extension, and internal rotation of the arm? | Latissimus dorsi |
| What muscle forms the rounded contour of the shoulder and is a major abductor of the arm? | Deltoid |
| Biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis | |
| What muscle is the primary extensor of the elbow? | Triceps brachii |
| What are the general actions of the anterior forearm muscles? | Flexion of the wrist, hand, and fingers. |
| What are the general actions of the posterior forearm muscles? | Extension of the wrist, hand, and fingers. |
| What is the powerful hip flexor muscle group found deep in the pelvis and thigh? | Iliopsoas (Iliacus and Psoas major) |
| What are the four muscles that make up the quadriceps femoris group? | Rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, and vastus intermedius. |
| What is the action of the quadriceps femoris group? | Extension of the leg at the knee. |
| What three muscles make up the hamstring group? | Biceps femoris, semitendinosus, and semimembranosus. |
| What is the action of the hamstring group? | Flexion of the leg at the knee and extension of the thigh at the hip. |
| What muscle is the main antagonist to the hamstring group? | Quadriceps femoris group |
| What is the large, powerful muscle forming the buttocks, responsible for thigh extension? | Gluteus maximus |
| What calf muscle is a powerful plantar flexor and plays a key role in walking and running? | Gastrocnemius |
| What is the largest tendon in the body? | Calcaneal tendon (Achilles tendon) |
| What is the action of the tibialis anterior muscle? | Dorsiflexion (lifting the foot) and inversion of the foot. |
| What is the medical term for muscle wasting due to aging? | Sarcopenia |
| What are the deep muscles of the back that are vital for maintaining the upright posture of the spine? | Erector spinae |
| What term describes the muscles that are entirely contained within the structure being moved (e.g., small hand muscles)? | Intrinsic muscles |
| What term describes the muscles that originate outside the structure being moved (e.g., forearm muscles moving the fingers)? | Extrinsic muscles |
| What is the clinical significance of maintaining muscle mass in older age? | It helps counteract degenerative changes and reduce the risk of falls/fractures. |
| What is the function of the vastus lateralis, medialis, and intermedius? | To extend the leg at the knee (three of the four quadriceps muscles). |
| What superficial thigh muscle is the longest muscle in the body and allows us to sit cross-legged? | Sartorius |
| What is the muscle group on the medial side of the thigh responsible for drawing the thighs together? | Adductor group (magnus, longus, brevis, etc.) |
| What muscles are primarily responsible for rotating the arm inward (medial rotation)? | Subscapularis and pectoralis major |
| What two calf muscles are primarily responsible for plantar flexion? | Gastrocnemius and Soleus |
| What muscle is the primary abductor of the thigh? | Gluteus medius |
| What are the three main characteristics of muscle tissue? | Excitability (irritability), contractility, and extensibility. |
| What is the scientific name for the plasma membrane of a muscle fiber? | Sarcolemma |
| What is the internal network of tubules and sacs within the muscle fiber? | Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) |
| What structures allow the electrical impulse to travel deep into the muscle fiber? | T-tubules (transverse tubules) |
| What is the contractile unit of a muscle fiber? | Sarcomere |
| What are the thick and thin filaments primarily composed of? | Thick: Myosin; Thin: Actin |
| What is the theory describing muscle contraction called? | The sliding filament model |
| What structure is responsible for storing and releasing calcium ions in a resting muscle fiber? | Sarcoplasmic reticulum |
| What is the role of calcium ions (Ca 2+) in muscle contraction? | They bind to troponin, causing tropomyosin to shift and expose active sites on actin. |
| What are the two regulatory proteins found on the thin (actin) filament? | Troponin and tropomyosin |
| What are the projections from the thick (myosin) filaments that attach to the thin filaments? | Myosin heads (cross-bridges) |
| What provides the energy necessary for the myosin head to detach and reset for the next stroke? | Hydrolysis of ATP |
| What is the brief, all-or-none contraction of a muscle fiber in response to a single stimulus called? | A twitch contraction |
| What is wave summation? | The increasing force of muscle contraction due to rapid, successive stimuli (twitches merge). |
| What is the sustained contraction caused by very rapid stimulation with no relaxation between twitches? | Tetanus (or complete tetanus) |
| What is muscle tone? | A continuous, partial contraction of a muscle, even at rest. |
| What is an isotonic contraction? | A contraction where muscle tension remains the same while the muscle length changes (movement occurs). |
| What is an isometric contraction? | A contraction where muscle length remains the same while muscle tension increases (no movement). |
| What is the difference between concentric and eccentric isotonic contractions? | Concentric: muscle shortens; Eccentric: muscle lengthens while contracting. |
| What unique structures electrically couple cardiac muscle cells, allowing them to contract as a unit? | Intercalated discs |
| What prevents cardiac muscle from being able to enter a state of complete tetanus? | Its prolonged refractory period |
| What is the molecule that calcium binds to in smooth muscle to initiate contraction? | Calmodulin (instead of troponin) |
| What term is used to describe muscles that are 'flaccid'? | They have less tone than normal. |
| What two major chemical components are required for muscle contraction and relaxation? | Calcium (Ca 2+) and ATP |
| What is the role of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase at the neuromuscular junction? | To break down acetylcholine, stopping the nerve impulse. |
| What is the space between the motor neuron and the muscle fiber called? | Synaptic cleft (or neuromuscular junction) |
| What neurotransmitter is released at the neuromuscular junction to stimulate a muscle fiber? | Acetylcholine (ACh) |
| What is the smooth, sustained contraction seen during normal motor activity called? | Complete tetanus |
| What is the phenomenon where the strength of a muscle contraction increases with repeated stimulation (staircase effect)? | Treppe |
| What type of muscle is characterized by a single nucleus and a lack of striations? | Smooth muscle |
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