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Exam 2 Terms
Terms and definitions for exam 2
| Definition | Term |
|---|---|
| Domains Bacteria and Archaea | Prokaryotic cells |
| Domain Eukarya---protists, fungi, animals, and plants | Eukaryotic cells |
| The region between the inner and outer membrane | Intermediate space |
| Is enclosed by the inner membrane | Mitochondrial matrix |
| Inside a chloroplast is a membranous system of flattened, interconnected sacs | Thylakoids |
| Some thylakoids are stacked in | Granum |
| Fluid outside the thylakoids | Stroma |
| Mitochondria and chloroplasts display similarities with bacteria | Endosymbiont theory |
| Endosymbiont Theory: Mitochondria and chloroplasts have 2 membranes surrounding them, while all other organelles have one | First |
| Endosymbiont Theory: Mitochondria and chloroplasts contain ribosomes and circular DNA molecules | Second |
| Endosymbiont Theory: Mitochondria and chloroplasts are autonomous---grow and reproduce within the cell | Third |
| Most membrane proteins | Amphipathetic |
| Unsaturated hydrocarbon tails (kinked) prevent packing, enhancing membrane fluidity | Fluid |
| Saturated hydrocarbon tails pack together, increasing membrane viscosity | Viscous |
| Effects membrane fluidity at different temperatures | Cholesterol |
| Proteins that are bound to the membrane surface | Peripheral |
| Proteins that penetrate the hydrophobic core | Integral |
| A type of integral protein that spans the membrane | Transmembrane |
| Carbohydrates bonded to lipids | Glycolipids |
| Carbohydrates bonded to proteins | Glycoproteins |
| Some substances cross, some don't | Selective permeability |
| Cross membranes quickly through transport proteins | Hydrophilic |
| Protein that has hydrophilic channel, certain molecules/ions can use as a tunnel | Channel |
| Increase the rate of passage of water molecules | Aquaporins |
| Protein that binds to molecules, change shape to shuttle across membranes | Carrier |
| Movement of particles so that they spread out evenly, fill available space | Diffusion |
| Region along which density of a chemical substance increases or decreases | Concentration gradient |
| The diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane; no energy expended | Passive transport |
| Diffusion of free water (molecules not clustered around other substances) across a selective permeable membrane | Osmosis |
| Ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water | Tonicity |
| Solution with solute concentration the same as inside the cell | Isotonic |
| Solute concentration is higher outside than inside the cell | Hypertonic |
| Cell shrivels and the membrane pulls away from the cell well in multiple locations | Plasmolysis |
| Solute concentration is less outside than inside the cell | Hypotonic |
| Very firm, healthy state for more plants | Turgid |
| Control of solute concentration and water balance | Osmoregulation |
| Diffusion that transports proteins speed passive movement across plasma membrane | Facilitated |
| Channel that facilitates the transport of ions | Ion |
| Channel that opens/closes in response to stimulus | Gated |
| Requires energy, usually ATP hydrolysis; move substances against concentration gradient | Active transport |
| The voltage (electrical potential energy) across a membrane | Membrane potential |
| Drives the diffusion of ions across a membrane | Electrochemical gradient |
| Transport protein, generates voltage across a membrane, stores energy for cell | Electrogenic pump |
| Actively transports hydrogen ions out of the cell | Proton pump |
| Active transport of a solute indirectly drives transport of other substances | Cotransport |
| Transport vesicles migrate to the membrane, fuse, and release contents outside | Exocytosis |
| Macromolecules are taken into the cell in vesicles | Endocytosis |
| Cell engulfs particle by extending pseudopodia around it, packing it in a membranous sac (food vacuole) | Phagocytosis |
| Molecules taken up when extracellular fluid is "gulped" into tiny vesicles | Pintocytosis |
| Vesicle formation triggered by solute binding to receptors | Receptor-mediated endocytosis |
| Totality of an organism's chemical reactions | Metabolism |
| A specific molecule is altered in a series of steps, produces a product | Metabolic pathway |
| Release energy, break down complex molecules into simpler compounds | Catabolic pathways |
| Consume energy, build complex molecules from simpler ones | Anabolic pathways |
| Study of how energy flows through living organisms | Bioenergetics |
| Capacity to cause change | Energy |
| Energy associated with motion | Kinetic |
| Kinetic energy associated with random movement | Thermal |
| Energy that matter possess because of its location or structure | Potential |
| Potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction | Chemical |
| Study of energy transformations | Thermodynamics |
| System that is unable to exchange energy or matter with its surroundings | Isolated |
| System that energy and matter can be transferred between the system and its surroundings | Open |
| Law of Thermodynamics: The energy of the universe is constant; energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed | First |
| Law of Thermodynamics: Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe | Second |
| Measure of molecular disorder, or randomness | Entropy |
| Occur without energy input; they can happen quickly or slowly---these are energetically favorable | Spontaneous processes |
| Require input of energy, decrease entropy | Nonspontaneous |
| Portion of a system's energy that can do work | Free energy |
| Net release of free energy ("energy outward") | Exergonic reaction |
| Absorbs free energy ("energy inward") | Endergonic reaction |
| Use of an exergonic process to drive endergonic; mediated by ATP | Energy coupling |
| Ribose (a sugar), adenine (a nitrogenous base), and three phosphate groups; energy | ATP |
| Transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to another molecule; powers endergonic reactions | Phosphorylation |
| More reactive than the original molecule | Phosphorylation intermediate |
| Shuttling of inorganic phosphate and energy; couples energy-yielding processes to energy-consuming ones | ATP cycle |
| Chemical agent that speeds up reactions without being consumes | Catalyst |
| Macromolecule catalyst, selective | Enzyme |
| Initial energy needed to break bonds of the reactants---often supplied by heat | Activation energy |
| Catalyst selectively speeds up a reaction without being consumed | Catalysis |
| Enzyme reactant | Substrate |
| Enzyme bound to its substrate | Enzyme-substrate complex |
| Region on the enzyme that binds to the substrate | Active site |
| Interactions between chemical groups on the substrate and the active site | Induced fit |
| When all enzyme molecules have their active sites engaged | Saturated |
| Conditions for max reaction rate | Optimal temperature |
| Non-protein helpers, bind to the enzyme permanently, or reversibly with the substrate | Cofactors |
| Organic cofactors | Coenzymes |
| Resemble the substrate, and bind to the active site | Competitive inhibitors |
| Bind to nonactive site on enzyme | Noncompetitive inhibitors |
| Regulatory molecule binds at one site, affects function at another; either inhibits or stimulates activity | Allosteric regulation |
| Substrate binds to one active site triggers a shape change that stabilizes active form for all other sites | Cooperativity |
| The end product shuts down the pathway; prevents a cell from chemical resources | Feedback inhibition |
| Consumes organic molecules and oxygen, yields ATP | Aerobic respiration |
| Consumes compounds other than oxygen | Anaerobic respiration |
| Partial degradation of sugars, occurs without oxygen | Fermentation |
| Includes both aerobic and anaerobic respiration, mostly aerobic respiration | Cellular respiration |
| Reactions that transfer electrons between reactants (oxidation-reduction reactions) | Redox reactions |
| Loss of electrons | Oxidation |
| The ADDITION of electrons (the amount of positive charge is reduced) | Reduction |
| Electron donor, reduces the electron acceptor | Reducing agent |
| Electron acceptor, oxidizes the electron donor | Oxidizing agent |
| Some redox reactions change electron sharing in covalent bonds; partial "gain" of electrons by O atoms and partial "loss" of electrons by bonding partner | Electronegative atoms |
| Organic molecules are oxidized, O2 is reduced | Cellular respiration |
| Abundance of H, source of high-energy electrons | Organic molecules |
| Transfers e- from high energy to lower energy state (with O); releases energy used to synthesize ATP | Oxidation of glucose |
| Coenzyme and e- carrier; oxidizing agent (e- acceptor) | NAD |
| Remove a pair of H from organic molecule; 2 e- and 1 proton transferred to NAD+ --- forms NADH | Dehydrogenases |
| NAD reduced form; represents stored energy, used to synthesize ATP | NADH |
| Breaks the fall of e- to O2 into several energy-releasing steps; consists of a series of molecules built into the inner membrane of the mitochondria | Electron transport chain |
| O2, captures the e- and hydrogen nuclei (H+), forms H2O | Final electron acceptor |
| Stages of Cellular Respiration: Breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate | Glycolysis |
| Stages of Cellular Respiration pt. 1: Complete breakdown of glucose to CO2 | Pyruvate oxidation |
| Stages of Cellular Respiration pt. 2: Complete breakdown of glucose to CO2 | Citric acid cycle |
| Stages of Cellular Respiration: Electron transfer chain and chemiosmosis facilitate synthesis of most of the cell's ATP | Oxydative phosphorylation |
| Process that generates ~90% of ATP, powered by redox reactions | Oxidative phosphorylation |
| Process by which some ATP is also formed in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle | Substrate-level phosphorylation |
| Occurs when an enzyme transfers a phosphate group directly from a substrate to ADP | Substrate-level phosphorylation |
| Glycolysis Phases: 2 ATP split glucose | Energy investment phase |
| Glycolysis Phases: 4 ATP are synthesizes, 2 NAD+ are reduced to NADH, the small sugars are oxidized to form 2 pyruvate and 2 H2) | Energy payoff phase |
| What pyruvate enters if O2 is present---glucose oxidation | Mitochondria |
| What the pyruvate converts to when it enters the citric acid cycle | Acetyl CoA |
| Acetyl group + oxaloacetate | Citrate |
| Powers ATP synthesis | Oxidative phosphorylation |
| Proteins with heme groups (iron atom) | Cytochromes |
| H+ diffuses back across the membrane, passing through the protein complex | ATP synthase |
| Use of energy in a H+ gradient to drive cellular work | Chemiosmosis |
| What the H+ gradient is referred to as; emphasizes its capacity to do work | Proton-motive force |
| Extension of glycolysis, oxidizes NADH by transferring electrons to pyruvate | Fermentation |
| The process by which glycolysis produces 2 ATP (net) regardless of O2 | Substrate-level phosphorylation |
| Pyruvate converted to ethanol in two steps | Alcohol fermentation |
| Step 1: Releases CO2 from pyruvate | Alcohol fermentation |
| Step 2: Produces NAD+ and ethanol | Alcohol fermentation |
| Pyruvate is reduced directly by NADH to form lactate and NAD+ | Lactic acid fermentation |
| The mechanisms used to oxidize NADH to NAD+ | Differences |
| Cannot survive in the presence of O2 | Obligate anaerobes |
| What yeast and many bacteria are; survive using either fermentation or cellular respiration | Facultative anaerobes |
| Breaks down fatty acids, yields acetyl CoA, NADH, and FADH2 | Beta-oxidation |
| Most common mechanism for metabolic control, prevents wasteful production | Feedback inhibition |
| Respiration speeds up | Low ATP |
| Respiration slows down | High ATP |
| Inhibited by ATP | Phosphofructokinase |
| Controlled by regulating the activity of enzymes at strategic points in the pathway | Catabolism |
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UkiyosDomain
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