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The Cell
The Cell, Histology & Integumentary System
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Extracellular | Outside the cell |
| Intercellular | Between cells |
| Intracellular | Inside the cell |
| Phospholipid Molecule | Hydrophilic “head” + hydrophobic fatty acid “tails” |
| Phospholipid Bilayer | Heads face water (inside & outside), tails face inward |
| Fluid Mosaic Model | Flexible bilayer with proteins “floating” inside (dynamic) |
| Structure vs. Function in membrane | Phospholipids = structure; proteins = function |
| Integral (Intrinsic) Proteins | Span bilayer; form channels/gates |
| Peripheral (Extrinsic) Proteins | On surface; markers, receptors, enzymes |
| Channel Proteins | Ligand-gated or voltage-gated channels |
| Receptor Proteins | Bind signals (hormones, neurotransmitters) |
| Marker Proteins | Identify cells (immune system) |
| Cellular Attachments | Desmosomes (like buttons holding cells) & tight junctions |
| Enzymes in membrane | Catalysts; speed up reactions |
| Nucleus | Double membrane with pores for RNA/protein exchange |
| Chromatin | unwound DNA |
| Chromosomes | condensed DNA |
| Nucleolus | Site of rRNA synthesis |
| Cytoplasm | Cytosol + organelles |
| Cytosol | Fluid portion of cytoplasm |
| Rough ER | Ribosomes attached; protein synthesis |
| Smooth ER | Lipid synthesis, detoxification |
| Golgi Apparatus | Modifies, packages, ships proteins/lipids |
| Lysosomes | Digest waste |
| Peroxisomes | Detox hydrogen peroxide/free radicals |
| Mitochondria | Powerhouse; ATP production |
| Krebs Cycle location | Mitochondrial matrix |
| Electron Transport Chain location | Inner membrane (cristae) |
| Centrioles | Organize spindle fibers & cytoskeleton |
| Cilia | Motile, beat with power & recovery stroke |
| Flagella | Whip-like; move cells (e.g. sperm) |
| Microvilli | Non-motile; increase surface area (intestines, kidneys) (Detects sound in our ear) |
| Diffusion | Movement from high → low concentration |
| Factors affecting diffusion rate | Gradient size, temperature, molecule size, viscosity |
| Pro-protein / pro-enzyme | Inactive precursor |
| Post-translational processing | Folding, cleavage, activation |
| Chromatid | half of duplicated chromosome |
| Purpose of Mitosis | Growth & repair (body cells) |
| Purpose of Meiosis | Produces gametes (sperm/egg) |
| Stages of Mitosis (in order) | Prophase → Metaphase → Anaphase → Telophase → Cytokinesis |
| Meiosis difference | 2 divisions → Meiosis I (homologous pairs separate), Meiosis II (sister chromatids separate) |
| Traits of epithelial tissue | Tightly packed, little E |
| Basal surface | Anchored to basement membrane |
| Apical (free) surface | May have cilia/microvilli |
| Tight junctions | Seal; prevent leakage |
| Gap junctions | Allow communication/ion flow |
| Shapes of epithelial cells | Squamous (flat), Cuboidal (cube), Columnar (tall) |
| Layers of epithelial cells | Simple (1), Stratified (>1) |
| Function of simple squamous | Gas exchange (lungs) |
| Function of simple cuboidal | Secretion/absorption (kidneys) |
| Transitional epithelium | Stretches (bladder) |
| Endocrine glands | Secrete hormones into blood |
| Exocrine glands | Secrete via ducts (sweat, saliva) |
| Traits of connective tissue | Few cells, abundant ECM |
| CT cell types | Fibroblasts (CT proper), chondrocytes (cartilage), osteocytes (bone) |
| ECM fibers | Collagen (strength), Reticular (support), Elastin (stretch) |
| Loose areolar CT | Support, cushion |
| Dense regular CT | Tendons/ligaments (parallel) |
| Dense irregular CT | Dermis (multi-directional strength) |
| Adipose tissue | Fat storage |
| Reticular tissue | Framework (lymphoid organs) |
| Hemopoietic tissue | Blood-forming |
| Hyaline cartilage | Joints, ribs; smooth |
| Fibrocartilage | Intervertebral discs; shock absorption |
| Elastic cartilage | Ear; flexible |
| Bone composition | Organic (collagen) + Inorganic (hydroxyapatite) |
| Compact bone | dense |
| Spongy | trabeculae |
| Only fluid CT | Blood |
| Defining trait of muscle tissue | Contraction → movement |
| Skeletal muscle | Striated, multinucleated, voluntary |
| Cardiac muscle | Striated, 1 nucleus, involuntary, intercalated discs |
| Smooth muscle | Non-striated, 1 nucleus, involuntary |
| Function of nervous tissue | Conducts electrical impulses |
| Dendrites | Receive signals |
| Axon | Transmits signals |
| Types of neurons | Multipolar, Bipolar, Unipolar |
| Neuroglia examples | Astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, ependymal, Schwann cells |
| Serous membranes | Line cavities; secrete serous fluid |
| Mucous membranes | Line digestive/respiratory tracts; secrete mucus |
| Synovial membranes | Synovial membranes |
| 5 signs of inflammation | Redness, heat, swelling, pain, loss of function |
| Histamine effects | Vasodilation, ↑ permeability |
| Regeneration | same tissue |
| Replacement | scar |
| Labile cells | Rapidly divide |
| Stable cells | Divide if needed |
| Permanent cells | Do not regenerate |
| Granulation tissue | Repair tissue; chronic scar if persistent |
| Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer) | Not skin; insulation, energy, cushioning |
| Vasoconstriction | Narrow vessels → conserve heat |
| Vasodilation | Widen vessels → release heat |
| Arrector pili | Cause goosebumps |
| Dermis layers | Reticular (strength) & Papillary (fingerprints) |
| Epidermis traits | Stratified squamous; keratinocytes & melanocytes |
| Order of epidermis layers (deep → superficial) | Basale → Spinosum → Granulosum → Lucidum (thick skin only) → Corneum |
| Thick skin | palms/soles |
| Thin Skin | most body |
| Melanin function | Protects from UV |
| Skin color factors | Genetics, hormones, UV, carotene, blood flow, oxygen |
| Hair types | Lanugo (fetal), Vellus (fine), Terminal (thick) |
| Lanugo | fetal |
| Vellus | peach fuzz |
| Terminal | thick |
| Sebaceous glands | Oil/sebum; lubricates hair/skin |
| Sweat glands | Cooling; odor from bacteria |
| Vitamin D production | UV light → precursor → vitamin D |
| Aging effects on skin | Thin skin, ↓ collagen/elastin, wrinkles, poor healing |
| Osmosis | Movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane from low solute to high solute concentration |
| Semi-permeable membrane | Allows some substances (like water) to pass, but not others |
| Isotonic | Solution with equal solute concentration inside and outside the cell (no net water movement) |
| Hypertonic | Solution with higher solute concentration outside the cell → water moves out → cell shrinks (crenation) |
| Hypotonic | Solution with lower solute concentration outside the cell → water moves in → cell swells (lysis) |
| Crenation | Cell shrivels due to water loss in a hypertonic solution |
| Lysis | Cell bursts due to excess water intake in a hypotonic solution |
| Mediated Transport | Transport using a carrier or channel protein across the membrane |
| Specificity | Carrier binds only to specific molecules |
| Competition | Similar molecules compete for the same carrier protein |
| Saturation | Rate of transport limited when all carriers are in use |
| Facilitated Diffusion | Passive transport using carrier/channel proteins (no ATP) |
| Simple Diffusion | Movement directly through membrane from high → low concentration |
| Gate-required Diffusion | Large or charged molecules use gated channels to pass |
| Active Transport | Moves substances from low → high concentration using ATP |
| Symport (Co-transport) | Two substances move in the same direction across membrane |
| Endocytosis | Cell engulfs material into vesicle (brings substances in) |
| Exocytosis | Vesicle fuses with membrane to release substances outside cell |
| Anabolism | Metabolic reactions that build larger molecules from smaller ones (requires energy) |
| Catabolism | Metabolic reactions that break down molecules (releases energy) |
| Glycolysis | Breakdown of glucose into pyruvic acid in cytoplasm (no oxygen required, 2 ATP made) |
| Pyruvic Acid | End product of glycolysis; converted to lactic acid if no oxygen, or enters mitochondria if oxygen present |
| Fate of Pyruvic Acid | → Lactic acid (anaerobic) or → Krebs cycle (aerobic) |
| Aerobic Respiration | Requires oxygen; occurs in mitochondria to produce large amounts of ATP |
| Anaerobic Respiration | Occurs without oxygen; produces lactic acid and small amount of ATP |
| ATP from Glycolysis | 2 ATP |
| ATP from Krebs Cycle | 2 ATP |
| ATP from Electron Transport Chain | About 32–34 ATP |
| Total ATP from Glucose | 36–38 ATP |
| Krebs Cycle Function | Generates electron carriers (NADH, FADH₂) for ETC |
| Electron Transport Chain Function | Uses electrons from carriers to make most ATP |
| Glucose Transport (Secondary Active Example) | Uses sodium gradient to move glucose into cell without direct ATP use |
| Triplet | Sequence of 3 DNA bases coding for one amino acid |
| Gene | Segment of DNA that codes for one protein |
| Codon | Three-base sequence on mRNA that matches a DNA triplet |
| Anticodon | Three-base sequence on tRNA complementary to an mRNA codon |
| Start Codon | Signals where translation begins (AUG) |
| Stop Codon | Signals where translation ends (UAA, UAG, UGA) |
| Transcription | DNA → mRNA; occurs in nucleus; uses uracil instead of thymine |
| Translation | mRNA → protein; occurs on ribosomes in cytoplasm |
| mRNA | Carries genetic code from nucleus to ribosomes |
| tRNA | Transfers amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis |
| rRNA | Forms ribosome structure and catalyzes protein synthesis |
| Uracil | Base in RNA that replaces thymine |
| Number of Possible Codons | 64 |
| Number of Amino Acids | 20 |
| Meaning of Extra Codons | Genetic code is redundant (multiple codons code same amino acid) |
| Nuclear Membranes | Two layers surrounding nucleus |
| Nuclear Pores | Allow movement of RNA and proteins in/out of nucleus Organelle Specialized structure within cell performing specific function |
| Prophase | Chromosomes condense; spindle forms; nuclear envelope breaks down |
| Metaphase | Chromosomes line up in center of cell |
| Anaphase | Sister chromatids pulled apart to opposite poles |
| Telophase | Nuclear membranes reform around each set of chromosomes |
| Cytokinesis | Cytoplasm divides into two cells |
| Meiosis I | Homologous chromosomes separate |
| Meiosis II | Sister chromatids separate (like mitosis) |
| Epithelial Tissue Nourishment | Obtains nutrients from diffusion through underlying connective tissue |
| Simple Columnar | Absorption/secretion (digestive tract) |
| Why Cuboidal/Columnar Active | Contain more organelles → energy for transport |
| Hormones | Chemical messengers transported by blood to target organs |
| Extracellular Matrix | Nonliving material around cells made of protein fibers + ground substance + fluid |
| Ground Substance | Gel-like component in ECM that fills space between fibers and cells |
| Hyaluronic Acid | Lubricates joints, allows tissue to slide easily |
| Proteoglycan Aggregates | Trap water and add cushioning to connective tissue |
| Fibroblast | Produces collagen and elastic fibers (connective tissue proper) |
| Osteocyte | Bone cell in lacunae |
| Lacunae | Spaces in cartilage or bone housing cells |
| Perichondrium | Dense connective tissue surrounding cartilage |
| Hydroxyapatite | Calcium phosphate crystals providing bone hardness |
| Trabeculae | Lattice-like network in spongy bone |
| Blood | Fluid connective tissue transporting gases, nutrients, wastes |
| Action Potential | Electrical signal transmitted by neuron |
| Synapse | Junction between neurons for signal transmission |
| Multipolar Neuron | One axon, many dendrites (most common) |
| Unipolar Neuron | Single process; sensory neurons |
| Astrocytes | Support and maintain environment around neurons |
| Oligodendrocytes | Form myelin in CNS |
| Schwann Cells | Form myelin in PNS |
| Microglia | Phagocytic immune cells of CNS |
| Ependymal Cells | Line brain ventricles; produce cerebrospinal fluid |
| Cause of Redness/Heat | Increased blood flow from vasodilation |
| Cause of Swelling | Fluid leakage into tissues |
| Cause of Pain | Chemical mediators stimulate nerve endings |
| Persistent Granulation Tissue | Leads to chronic scar formation |
| Cleavage (Tension) Lines | Natural skin lines formed by collagen fiber orientation |
| Striae | Stretch marks from torn dermal collagen |
| Papillary Layer Trait | Forms fingerprints and enhances grip |
| Random Papillae | On most of body |
| Parallel Papillae | In thick skin, form ridges (fingerprints) |
| Keratin | Tough protein that strengthens skin and hair |
| Keratinocyte | Main cell of epidermis producing keratin |
| Melanocyte | Produces melanin pigment |
| Desquamate | Shedding of surface skin cells |
| Keratinization | Process of keratin accumulation as cells move toward surface |
| Stratum Basale | Deepest layer; 1 cell thick; actively dividing |
| Stratum Spinosum | Several layers; some division; with basale forms germinativum |
| Stratum Germinativum | Basale + Spinosum; main growth layers |
| Lamellar Bodies | Lipid vesicles that waterproof skin |
| Stratum Lucidum | Clear layer in thick skin (palms, soles) |
| Stratum Corneum | Outermost thick layer of dead keratinized cells |
| Callus | Thickened skin from friction |
| Corn | Cone-shaped thickening on toe or foot |
| Mask of Pregnancy | Increased pigmentation due to hormones |
| Carotene | Yellow-orange pigment from diet |
| Cyanosis | Bluish tint from low oxygen in blood |
| Depth of Pigment | Deeper pigments appear bluer |
| Reason Tattoos Turn Blue | Light scattering in dermis makes pigment look blue |
| Blood Flow and Skin Tone | More flow = redder tone; less = pale |
| Sodium Potassium Pump | 3 Sodium out, 2 Potassium in |
| Metabolism | Chemical Reaction |
Created by:
mdonovan8742
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