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Biochem Unit 1
| What is an ionic bond? | Transfer of electrons between atoms, creating charged ions. Ionic compounds are soluble in water. |
| What is a covalent bond? | Sharing of electrons between atoms. Can be polar or nonpolar depending on electronegativity difference. |
| What is a polar covalent bond? | A covalent bond with EN difference of 0.4–1.7. Polar molecules dissolve in water; nonpolar molecules do not. |
| What are intermolecular bonds? | Attractions between molecules that affect solubility, brittleness, boiling and melting points. |
| What are hydrogen bonds? | Strongest intermolecular force, weaker than covalent. Partial + H attracts partial – atom (O, N, F, C) in another molecule. |
| What is a dehydration reaction? | A reaction where –OH of one molecule and H of another form H2O, while the molecules join with a covalent bond. |
| What is hydrolysis? | A reaction where water is added to break a covalent bond, separating macromolecules. |
| Why is water the universal solvent? | Water surrounds ions and polar molecules with hydration shells, stabilizing them and allowing dissolution. |
| What is the water lattice? | In liquid water, H bonds form a lattice. Bonds break and reform quickly, allowing water to flow. |
| Why is ice less dense than water? | Ice forms 4 hydrogen bonds per molecule, creating open crystalline spacing. Molecules are farther apart, so ice floats. |
| Why does water have high specific heat? | Energy goes into breaking hydrogen bonds, so water resists temperature changes and stays liquid until 100 °C. |
| What is cohesion in water? | Water sticks to itself via hydrogen bonds, causing surface tension. Lets insects walk on water and beads form on wax. |
| What is adhesion in water? | Water sticks to other polar or charged objects by forming hydrogen bonds with them. |
| What is an aqueous solution? | Water surrounds ions or polar molecules with hydration shells, where the slightly (-) surrounds the slightly (+) and vice versa, preventing them form rejoining the lattice |
| What are carbohydrates? | Organic molecules with ratio C:H:O = 1:2:1. Categories: monosaccharides, disaccharides/oligosaccharides, polysaccharides. |
| What are monosaccharides? | The simplest sugars. Differ by chain length and type of carbonyl group (aldehyde or ketone). |
| What is alpha glucose? | Monosaccharide with –OH at C1 below the ring. Humans can digest alpha glucose. |
| What is beta glucose? | Monosaccharide with –OH at C1 above the ring. Humans cannot digest beta glucose (fiber). |
| What are oligosaccharides? | 2–3 simple sugars joined by 1–4 glycosidic linkages through dehydration synthesis. |
| What are disaccharides? | Carbohydrates made of two monomers: maltose, lactose, sucrose. |
| What is maltose? | A disaccharide of α glucose + α glucose. Found in grains and beer brewing. |
| What is lactose? | A disaccharide of galactose + β glucose. Found in milk. |
| What is sucrose? | A disaccharide of α glucose + fructose. Found in table sugar. |
| What are polysaccharides? | 100+ monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds. Functions: energy storage (starch, glycogen) and structural support (cellulose, chitin). |
| What is starch? | Main plant energy storage polysaccharide made of linked glucose molecules. |
| What is amylose? | Form of starch that is unbranched, with α 1–4 links. |
| What is amylopectin? | Branched form of starch. Main chain has α 1–4 links, branches have α 1–6 links. |
| What is glycogen? | Animal energy storage in liver and muscle. Highly branched (α 1–4, α 1–6). Stores deplete in about one day. |
| What is cellulose? | Structural polysaccharide in plant cell walls. β 1–4 links with alternating OH. Humans can’t digest it. its a straight chain like amylose, but you can recognise it by the alternating OH |
| What is glucosamine? | Modified glucose molecule where an N-containing group replaces an OH group. |
| What is chitin? | composed of glucosamine. Found in exoskeletons of beetles and creasteans. used in contact lenses and stitches. |
| What are lipids? | Nonpolar molecules for long-term energy, insulation, cushioning, and storage. |
| What are fatty acids? | Long hydrocarbon chains with a terminal carboxyl group that gives is acidic properties. Longer chains are more hydrophobic. |
| What are saturated fatty acids? | Fatty acids with 4Hs bonded to C in single bonds (straight) |
| What are unsaturated fatty acids? | Fatty acids with 3Hs bonded to C with one of them being a double bond ( bent at the double bond) |
| What are triglycerides? | Fats with 3 fatty acids + glycerol. Formed by dehydration (ester linkages). Double the energy of carbs. |
| What are phospholipids? | Amphipathic lipids with polar phosphate head + 2 nonpolar fatty acid tails. Main component of cell membranes, with ester and phosphate ester links to the glycerol |
| What are steroids? | Lipids with 4 fused carbon rings + functional groups. Include cholesterol and sex hormones. gives molecule dual solubility properties |
| What is cholesterol? | Steroid that maintains cell membrane fluidity and permeability. Prevents membranes from freezing. |
| What are waxes? | Lipids made of long fatty acids + alcohols or carbon rings. Hydrophobic, firm, pliable. Ex: cutin, the water resistant coating on plants, bird feathers, beeswax. |
| What are the main roles of proteins? | 50% of cell dry mass. Provide structure (keratin, collagen), act as enzymes, form antibodies, and transport O₂/CO₂. |
| What determines protein shape and why is it important? | Shape is set by amino acid order and types. Shape is crucial for function; misfolding can cause disease. |
| What is the structure of amino acids? | Central C bonded to amino, carboxyl, H, and an R group (20 types, 8 essential). Linked by peptide bonds via dehydration where the carboxyl of one links to the amino of the other |
| What are the four protein structure levels? | Primary = amino acid chain. Secondary = α helix/β sheet via H bonds. Tertiary = 3D fold via R groups. Quaternary = multiple chains. |
| What are nucleic acids and their monomers? | DNA and RNA, made of nucleotides (nitrogenous base, 5-C sugar, phosphate group). |
| What are the key features of DNA? | Sugar = deoxyribose. Bases: A,T,G,C. Purines = A,G; pyrimidines = T,C. Double-stranded, antiparallel, A–T has 2 H bonds, G–C has 3. |
| What bonds hold DNA together? | Phosphodiester bonds (covalent) link nucleotides 5’→3’ by dehydration where phosphate group at C5 bonds with the hydroxyl group at C3,Hydrogen bonds hold bases between strands. |
| What are the key features of RNA? | Sugar = ribose. Single-stranded. Bases: A,U,G,C (uracil replaces thymine). Forms phosphodiester bonds but no H bonds. |
| What are enzymes and how do they work? | Biological catalysts, reusable. Active site fits substrate (induced fit) to form enzyme–substrate complex. |
| What factors affect enzyme activity? | More substrate = higher rate until saturation. Temp and pH have optimal ranges; extremes cause denaturation. |
| What is allosteric regulation and feedback inhibition? | Allosteric activators fix active site; inhibitors distort it. Feedback inhibition: end product inhibits the first enzyme in a pathway. |
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sh_bookworm
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