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Microbiology Exam #1
Chapters 1 and 3-6
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| *What are the 3 domains into which organisms are divided? | Bacteria Archaea Eukarya |
| Describe contributions of Pasteur | -Discovered that living organisms discriminate between optical isomers -Discovered that alcoholic fermentation was a biologically mediated process (originally thought to be purely chemical) -Developed vaccines for anthrax, fowl cholera, and rabies |
| Describe contributions of Koch | -Established the relationship between Bacillus anthracis and anthrax. -Demonstrated that Mycobacterium tuberculosis causes tuberculosis (TB). -causative agents of disease (etiology) and the rise of medical microbiology |
| What is spontaneous generation? | -Living things only arise from other living things (cell theory) -Sterile: completely free of all life forms including endospores and virus particles. -Pasteurization: reduces number of microorganisms in a sample due to high heat; does not sterilize |
| Endosymbiont theory and our evidence for it | 1-infoldings in the plasma membrane of ancestral prokaryote include a nucleus and ER 2-first event the ancestral eukaryote consumed aerobic bacteria that into mitochondria 3-second event-early eukaryote consumed photosynthetic bacteria into chloroplasts |
| Describe how humans have explained infectious diseases through the years. | |
| How do we classify and discover evolutionary relatedness today? | -using a combination of molecular, morphological, and computational methods |
| Can microbes be helpful to humans and society? How? | -are not just helpful, they’re essential to human health and the functioning of society -gut health -immune support -medical breakthroughs |
| Binomial nomenclature and how genus and species names written in this format? | a combination of the genus and species name -genus name = capitalized -species = lower case Both names should be italicized when in print or underlinesd |
| How do viruses and bacteria compare in terms of population size on our planet? | -viruses absolutely dominate the microbial world -bacteria are incredibly abundant and diverse, viruses—especially bacteriophages—outnumber them significantly. This viral dominance is not just about quantity; it's also about diversity |
| ***Describe structures and functions of bacteria | |
| describe basic shapes of bacteria and arrangement. How do we name the bacteria and why are they so small? | -coccus-spherical or ovoid, diplo, staphylo, strepto -bacillus-rod or cylindrical shape, diplo, strepto, palisades -coccobacillus -vibrio -spirillum -spirochete |
| Chemical composition of gram + and gram - and why they stain so differently. | Gram +/peptidoglycan layer, Teichoic acids, lipoteichoic acids, and no outer membrane Gram-/peptidoglycan layer, outer membrane, periplasmic space, and no teichoic acids |
| Descirbe peptidoglycan from a chemical standpoint. What is it composed of? | Peptidoglycan, also known as murein, is a complex polymer that forms the structural backbone of bacterial cell walls -glycan backbone -peptide side chains -cross linking |
| Why is lysozyme important? | plays a crucial role in protecting the body from bacterial infections and maintaining immune system integrity -innate immune defense -bacterial cell wall breakdown -broad distribution -therapeutic potential |
| Why is LPS significant? | is significant because it plays a critical role in both bacterial physiology and human health -structural integrity -survival mechanism -immune activation -inflammation and disease -gut health |
| Explain variations in cell wall composition? | -plants/cellulose, hemicellulose, + pectin -fungi/chitin+glucans -bacteria/peptidoglycan -archaea/Pseudopeptidoglycan, proteins, polysaccharides -algae/Cellulose, alginates, sulfated polysaccharides -protists/may include silica, cellulose, or protein |
| How does penicillin act as a peptidoglycan? | |
| What are acid-fast bacteria, and why are they different from other bacteria? What is special about the cell wall? | |
| What are hopanoids? What are S-layers? | -pentacyclic triterpenoid lipids found in the membranes of many bacteria and some lower eukaryotes -are crystalline arrays of protein or glycoprotein that form the outermost layer of many bacterial and archaeal cell envelopes |
| What are the 3 functions of the cell membrane in prokaryotes? What molecules can cross the membrane and why? | -selective barrier for transport -site of metabolic activities -cell signaling and communication small nonpolar molecules like O2, CO2 and small polar molecules like H2O |
| What is special about some fatty acids in cell membrane? | they play dynamic and essential roles in cellular function -amphipathic nature -saturation matters -essential fatty acids -docosahexaenoic acid -signaling role -membrane protein interaction |
| Hypotonic | -Lower outside than inside the cell -into the cell -Cells swell (may burst) |
| How do cell walls benefit organisms in changing solute concentration? | -prevents osmotic lysis -maintain shape -acts as a buffer -supports turgor pressure |
| What are the major cell membrane transport systems in bacteria? | -passive transport (simple and facilitated diffusion) -active transport (ATP-binding cassette transporters and symporters and antiporters) -specialized transport proteins (major intrinsic proteins and porins) -protein secretion sys |
| ABC transporters | Use ATP hydrolysis to transport a wide range of substrates including ions, sugars, and peptides |
| How is DNA stored in bacteria? What is a plasmid? Why are they important? | |
| In what way are ribosomes of bacteria different than that of eukaryotes? | -size -rRNA composition -protein content (bacteria has less proteins) -bacteria are free floating in cytoplasm and in Eukaryotes can be bound to the rough ER |
| Explain the survival significance of endospores? | -are a remarkable survival mechanism used by certain bacteria—most notably Bacillus and Clostridium species—to endure extreme environmental conditions -extreme resistance, dormancy, environmental adaptation, medical and industrial impact, and evolution |
| What are the 2 major genera that produce endospores? What diseases do these genera cause? | 1-Bacillus/anthrax and food poisoning 2-Clostridium/botulism, tetanus, diarrhea and colitis, gas gangrene, and food poisoning |
| What kinds of cytoplasmic inclusions can a bacterium have-for what purpose? | |
| Describe differences in capsules vs. slime layer. Why are these important? | -Differ in structure, attach, visibility, comp, and durability -protect from host/Capsules help bacteria evade phagocytosis -Slime layers aid in attachment -environmental survival -antibiotic resistance |
| Describe differences in pili vs fimbriae vs flagella | -Pili/longer and thicker than fimbriae, few per cell, made of pilin protein -Fimbriae-shorter and thinner than pili, numerous, made of fimbrillin protein -Flagella/longest of the 3, thick, few, made of flagellin protein |
| Describe the parts of a flagella | are whip-like appendages that enable motility in many bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotic cells -filament-longest and most visible part -hook-short, curved segment -basal body-anchors the flagellum to cell membrane and wall |
| Describe bacterial motility | to the ability of bacteria to move independently using energy derived from their metabolism. This movement is essential for survival, colonization, and adaptation to changing environments |
| Chemotaxis | is the directional movement of motile cells or organisms toward or away from a chemical gradient -Pos chemotaxis: move toward high concentrations of an attractant (e.g., nutrients) -Neg chemotaxis: move away from harmful substances (e.g., toxins) |
| Describe the structure of flagella and how motility works. | are whip-like appendages that enable motility in many cells, including bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotic cells like sperm. Their structure and movement mechanisms vary across domains of life, but they share core components and functions |
| *What are the 4 groups of archaea? | Euryarchaeota Crenarchaeota Korarchaeota Nanoarchaeota |
| Describe the 2 prokaryotic domains. What is the difference between the two? | -Bacteria/peptido, ester-linked fatty acids, common environ, many are pathogenic, unique to bacteria, and some perform O2 photosynthesis -Archaea/lacks a peptido, ether-linked fatty acids, extreme environ, none pathogenic, shares genes with euk, no O2 |
| Describe the structural differences or unique structures of Archaea from other prokaryotes that were highlighted in lecture. What survival advantages to these structural differences provide? | |
| Describe environments where we find Archaea. -Specifically, link adaptations for structure with how they survive in unique environments. -What is special about some fatty acids in cell membranes? How does it relate to temperature and survivability? | |
| ***List differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. What cell structures are similar between both groups? | |
| Organelles of eukaryotic cells and their functions (concentrate on short description) that were described in class and in the lecture slides – what is unique about them? Why are they important? | |
| Describe ways by which eukaryotic cells move. How is it different than bacterial motion? | -both exhibit motility, but they do hv fundamentally different structures and mechanisms -Eukaryotic cells move w/ microtubules in a whipping, crawling movement and use ATP -Bacteria use flagellin in a rotating, gliding movement and use ATP or proton |
| mitosis vs. meiosis | -Mitosis/Growth, repair, asexual, 1 division, 2 daughter cells, identical to parent cell, diploid (2n), somatic, no cross over -Meiosis/sexual reproduction,, 2 divisions, different from parent cell, haploid (n), germ cells, crossover in prophase I |
| haploid vs diploid | -Haploid/1 complete set, 23 chromosomes, and gametes -Diploid/2 complete sets, 46 chromosomes, and somatic cells |
| Describe how Fungi are important in nature and to humans. Which fungi are single vs multi-cellular? How are cell walls different from other eukaryotes and bacteria? | |
| What structures are unique to Fungi, and how do they help fungi? How are yeast different than molds, and how do we tell the difference between them? | |
| How do Fungi reproduce? | through both asexual and sexual methods, depending on the species and environmental conditions |
| Why ARE FUNGI both sexual and asexual spores? | -asexual/is the most common and efficient method for fungi, allowing rapid population growth. -sexual/occurs under specific conditions, often when resources are limited or environmental stress is high |
| Conidia vs sporangia | -are free, external spores that develop on stalks and are typical of fungi vs. are sac-like structures that contain spores internally, common in fungi |
| What are hyphae? | -are the long, thread-like structures that make up the body of multicellular fungi, as well as some bacteria and oomycetes. They're the fundamental building blocks of a fungus's vegetative growth and collectively form a network called the |
| How do we identify fungi in the lab? What are the two general groups we recognize? | -involves a combination of traditional culturing techniques and modern molecular methods -yeasts/Unicellular fungi that reproduce by budding or fission -molds/Multicellular fungi with filamentous hyphae |
| What do we call illnesses caused by fungi? Where do we typically find them (on humans?) | |
| What is unique about Fungi nutritional needs? | -heterotrophic lifestyle -extracellular digestion -versatile carbon sources -diverse nutritional modes -essential elements -entire mycelium as absorptive surface |
| What are algae? How do they get nutrients? | -a diverse group of mostly aquatic, photosynthetic organisms -are primarily photoautotrophs, meaning they use sunlight to synthesize nutrients through photosynthesis |
| What are algal blooms and why are they ecologically important? | -are rapid increases in the population of algae—microscopic, photosynthetic organisms—in aquatic environments like lakes, rivers, and oceans -important bc they are primary producers, O2 dynamics, toxin production, light blockage, and economic impact |
| What kinds of organisms are referred to as ‘protozoans’? | -Eukaryotic, heterotrophic, motile examples are Amoeba, Paramecium, Giardia, and Plasmodium (which causes malaria) |
| What structures do protozoa have that enable them to thrive in their environments? How are they more structurally complex than bacteria? How are they less structurally complex than helminths? | |
| Define and describe the major stages of a typical protozoan life cycle. What is unique about each stage/ structure? Cysts vs trophozoite. | |
| Describe motility structures of protozoa and why they’re important | -single-celled organisms that move using specialized structures. These motility structures are essential for their survival, feeding, reproduction, and interaction with their environment -flagella, cilia, Pseudopodia, and undulating membrane |
| Know important features of Plasmodium life cycle and epidemiology. | -have a digenetic life cycle, meaning they require two hosts: humans and female Anopheles mosquitoes/asexual and sexual phase -transmission routes, geographic distribution, clinical impact, and control strategies |
| Describe what characterizes a eukaryote as a ‘helminth’. What are the major divisions taxonomically? What is something unique about each division? | |
| What unique structures do helminths have that enable them to survive in their environment or thrive? | -Tegument (syncytial outer layer) -cuticle -spiny proboscis -reduced or absent digestive systems -highly developed reproductive systems |
| Describe a typical life cycle of a helminth. This can vary a lot, so work to find some similarities between groups. How do they reproduce? How are they identified in lab? | |
| Describe the clinical importance of Enterobius, manifestations, and how it is spread | -important due to prevalence, public health impact, and contagiousness -manifestations of primary and secondary symptoms -transmission through direct contact, fomite, airborne route, and retroinfection |
| What is C. elegans? Why is it important? | -a tiny, transparent nematode worm that lives in soil, especially in decaying vegetation. It’s free-living, non-parasitic, and feeds on microbes like bacteria -a model organism, transparent body, simple nervous sys, genetic tractability, short lifespan |
| Why are arthropods important to microbiologists? | -play a crucial role in microbiology for several reasons, particularly due to their interactions with microorganisms and their impact on human health and ecosystems |
| ***The characteristics of viruses in comparison to other living things, prokaryotes, and eukaryotes. | |
| basic structure of a virus, , such as envelope, capsid, capsomere, and shapes of importance etc. | |
| Explain why viruses are specific for certain hosts (host specificity and range) and structure responsible | |
| Describe the main criteria used to classify viruses, group them together, and naming | -Morphology: Shape, size, and structural features of the virus -Genetic Material: Type of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) -Replication Mechanism -Host Range: The types of organisms the virus infects -Pathogenicity -Evolutionary Relationships |
| Why are enzymes important to the function of certain viruses? Know the ones discussed in lecture. What is the difference between hemagglutinin and neuraminidase? | |
| What are the main steps in viral replication in animal cells? Know the order and describe each. Contrast bacteriophages from animal virus replication | |
| Contrast the main types of viral replication in animal cells according to genome | -DNA viruses replicate in the nucleus -RNA replicate in the cytoplasm -Retroviruses replicate in the cytoplasm to the nucleus -Hepadnaviruses replicate in the nucleus and cytoplasm |
| What is unique about retroviruses? | -due to their unusual replication strategy and genomic integration -reverse transcription -integration into host genome -long term effects and latency |
| Describe effects an animal virus may have on a host cell, such as lysis, persistence, latency. | |
| What happens to the virus during a latent infection? What happens to the host? | -Dormancy, genome persistence, no symptoms, and reactivation potential to the virus -No immediate illness, immune surveillance, long term risk, and cellular changes to the host |
| How could viruses cause cancer? | -by disrupting the normal functioning of cells in ways that lead to uncontrolled growth. These cancer-causing viruses—called oncoviruses—don’t affect everyone the same way |
| Of the viruses presented (Influenza, Rhinovirus, Ebola, HIV, HPV etc) what key strategies are presented that help these viruses be successful, or that are unique, or contribute to key consequences? | |
| Contrast the 2 types of bacteriophage replication cycles—lytic (virulent) and lysogenic (temperate). | -Lytic are virulent phages/immediately hijacks host cell to produce new viruses, ultimately destroying the host -Lysogenic are temperate phages/replication strategy, the phage DNA into host genome and replicates passively w/host w/o killing it. |
| Distinguish lethal dose from infectious dose. | -LD/The amount of a substance (usually a toxin, drug, or chemical) required to cause death in an organism -ID/The number of pathogenic organisms (like bacteria or viruses) required to establish an infection in a host |
| How does the body limit viruses? What can we do to combat them in society? | -The human body and society both deploy sophisticated defenses against viruses—one biological, other behavioral and structural -body fights viruses through a multi-layered immune response -physical and chemical barriers, innate and adaptive immune sys |
| How does knowledge and understanding of bacteriophages intersect with human health? Consider the microbiota and their use in infectious disease treatment. | -viruses that infect and replicate within bacteria—offers profound insights into human health, particularly through their interactions with the microbiota and their emerging role in treating infectious diseases |
| What is a plaque assay? | -classic and widely used method in virology to quantify infectious virus particles in a sample. It’s especially valuable because it measures only infectious viruses—not just viral components or genetic material |
| hypertonic | -Higher outside than inside the cell -out of the cell -cells shrink (crenate) |
| Isotonic | -Equal inside and outside -no net movement -cells stay the same size |
| What is a saprobe? | is a type of fungus that feeds on dead organic matter. These fungi play a crucial role in ecosystems by decomposing plant and animal remains, recycling nutrients back into the soil |
| What is a ‘protist’? | -a diverse group of eukaryotic organisms that don’t fit neatly into the plant, animal, or fungal kingdoms |
| What are plaques? | are clear, circular zones on a cell monolayer where virus-induced cell death has occurred |
| What is lysogenic conversion? | process in microbiology where a bacterium acquires new traits due to the integration of a temperate bacteriophage's DNA into its genome. |
| Why is the sickle cell trait advantageous to humans? | -example of how genetics and environment interact to shape human evolution -protection against malaria -genetic trade off -global health implications |
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