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A&P Exam 3
PN111L
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Health | Physical, mental, and social well-being—not merely the absence of disease |
| Disease | An abnormality in body function that threatens health |
| Etiology | Study of the factors that cause a disease |
| What is the difference between an acute and a chronic disease? | An acute disease appears suddenly, persists for a short time, and then disappears. A chronic disease develops slowly and lasts for a long time, perhaps a lifetime. |
| Idiopathic | Refers to a disease with an unknown cause |
| Signs and symptoms | Objective and subjective abnormalities associated with a disease |
| Pathogenesis | Pattern of a disease’s development |
| What are examples of “signs” of a disease? | Signs are objective abnormalities such as a change in blood pressure, temperature, pulse, or respiratory rate |
| What are examples of “symptoms” of a disease? | Symptoms are subjective and can be felt only by the patient; examples include nausea or pain |
| Epidemiology | the study of occurrence, distribution, and transmission of diseases in human populations |
| Are endemic disease native to a region or is it worldwide | Native to a local region |
| When does epidemics occur | when a disease affects many people at the same time |
| What are Epidemiologists | physicians or medical scientists who study patterns of disease occurrence in specific groups. |
| Where might an epidemiologist be employed? | He or she might be employed by a hospital, a health department, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], a research facility, or an infection control program. |
| endemic | Endemic refers to a disease that is native to a local region. |
| epidemic | An epidemic is a disease that affects many individuals at the same time within a defined geographic region. |
| pandemic | A pandemic is an epidemic that has spread throughout the world. |
| Pathophysiology | Study of underlying physiological aspects of disease |
| What are the mechanisms of disease ( HINT there are 6) | Genetic mechanisms Infectious mechanisms (pathogenic organisms and particles) Neoplastic mechanisms (tumors and cancer) Traumatic mechanisms (physical and chemical agents) Metabolic mechanisms Inflammatory mechanisms |
| What are the risk factors? | Genetics Age Lifestyle Stress Environment Preexisting conditions |
| What are viruses | Microscopic, intracellular parasites that consist of a nucleic acid core with a protein coat |
| What do viruses invade | Invade host cells and pirate organelles and raw materials |
| What is a pathogenic organism? | Pathogenic organisms are living organisms and viruses that can cause disease. |
| Prions cause diseases such as | “mad cow disease” and brain degenerative diseases. |
| What is “mad cow disease”? | Mad cow disease is bovine spongiform encephalopathy, a very rare, fatal degeneration of brain tissue and progressive loss of nervous system function. |
| What is bacteria | Tiny cells without nuclei |
| What does bacteria do | Secrete toxins, parasitize host cells, or form colonies |
| How is it classificited | By growth requirements Aerobic: Require oxygen Anaerobic: Require no oxygen |
| Bacteria can be aerobic or anaerobic. What is the difference? | Aerobic bacteria require oxygen for metabolism; anaerobic bacteria require an absence of oxygen for metabolism. |
| Why are small bacteria sometimes called “obligate parasites”? | They can reproduce only inside other living cells |
| Different bacteria stain differently. Some are gram-positive and others are gram-negative. What is the difference in the staining properties? | he compounds in the cell’s walls either stain purple by the Gram staining technique [gram-positive] or do not stain purple by the Gram staining technique [gram-negative] |
| What are the shapes of the bacteria | Bacilli cocci curved or spiral rods small bacteria |
| Bacilli | Rod-shaped cells |
| Cocci | round cells |
| small bacteria | obligate parasites |
| Spores | Nonreproducing forms of bacteria that resist unfavorable environmental conditions |
| Another type of microbe similar to bacteria is the archaea. What unique features do archaea offer? | They thrive in extremely harsh environments that are very hot, very acidic, or very salty. So far, no archaea have been found that infect humans. |
| What are some examples of fungi? | Yeast mold mycotic infections |
| yeast | small, single-celled fungi |
| Molds | Large, multicellular fungi |
| Mycotic infection | Often resist treatment |
| Protozoa | Large one-celled organisms that have organized nuclei May infest human fluids and parasitize or destroy cells |
| What are pseudopodia, and which group of protozoa possess pseudopodia? | Pseudopodia are “false feet.” Amebas have “false feet” that pull them along. |
| Amebas | Possess pseudopodia |
| Flagellates | Possess flagella |
| Ciliats | Possess cilia |
| Sporozoa (coccidia) | Enter cells during one phase of a two-part life cycle; borne by vectors (transmitters) during the other phase |
| What are flagella? | Flagella are whip-like extensions that move flagellates along. |
| What are cilia? | Cilia are short hair-like extensions that move ciliates along. |
| Pathogenic animals are also called | metazoa |
| Pathogenic animals | Large complex multicellular organisms Parasitize or otherwise damage human tissues or organs |
| What is a vector? | A vector is an organism that spreads disease to other organisms |
| What are the major groups of pathogenic animals | Nematodes Platyhelminths arthropods |
| Nematods | Roundworms |
| Platyhelminths | Flatworms and flukes |
| Arthropods | Often vectors of disease |
| What are some arthropods | Parasitic mites, ticks, lice, fleas Biting or stinging wasps, bees, mosquitoes, spiders |
| What are mechanisms of transmission | person to person environmental contact Opportunistic invasion transmission by a vector |
| How can person to person contact be prevented | Education, using aseptic techniques |
| How can environmental contact be prevented | Avoiding contact and safe sanitation practices |
| How can a person prevent opportunistic invasion | avoiding changes in skin and mucous membranes, cleansing of wounds |
| How can a person prevent transmission by a vector | reducing the population of vectors and reducing contact with vectors |
| Vaccination | Stimulates immunity |
| Drug therapy | Destroy or inhibit pathogens |
| Antibiotics | Natural compounds derived from living organisms |
| Antiviral drugs | Inhibit viral reproduction and slow down progression of viral infections |
| What is a vaccine? | a dead or attenuated pathogen given to stimulate immunity. |
| Which method (sterilization, disinfection, antisepsis, or isolation) is most effective? | sterilization |
| When we wash our hands, which method of prevention are we using? | Disinfection |
| Neoplasms (tumors) | Abnormal growths of cells |
| Metastasis | Cells leave primary tumor and start a secondary tumor at new location |
| What are the four classifications of tumors | Benign epithelial tumors Benign connective tissue tumors Carcinomas (malignant epithelial tumors) Sarcomas (connective tissue cancers) |
| Papilloma | Fingerlike projections |
| Adenoma | Glandular tumor |
| Nevus | small, pigmented tumor |
| Lipoma | adipose (fat) tumor |
| Osteoma | Bone tumor |
| Chondroma | Cartilage tumor |
| Adenocarcioma | Glandular cancer |
| Lymphoma | Lymphatic cancer |
| Osteosarcoma | bone cancer |
| Myeloma | Bone marrow cancer |
| Fibrosarcoma | cancer of fibrous tissue |
| What are malignant tumors from the epithelial tissues generally called? | Cancer |
| What are malignant tissues that arise from the connective tissue generally called? | Sarcomas |
| What does the term “metastasize” mean? | Cells migrate from one tumor through lymphatic or blood vessels to another site |
| Causes of cancer: | Varied and still not clearly understood |
| hyperplasia | growth of too many cells |
| anaplasia | development of undifferentiated cells |
| Cancer | a type of neoplasm that involves uncontrolled cell division |
| Factors that play a role in causing cancer | Genetic factors (e.g., oncogenes [cancer genes]) Carcinogens: Chemicals that alter genetic activity Age Environment: Chronic exposure to damaging substances Viruses: Cause change in genetic “machinery” |
| Method of detecting cancers | Self-examination Diagnostic imaging: Radiography (e.g., mammogram and computed tomography [CT] scan), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), ultrasonography Biopsy (e.g., Pap smear) Blood tests |
| What is the name of the medical specialist who diagnoses and treats cancer? | Oncologist |
| Staging | Classifying tumors by size and extent of spread |
| Grading | Assessing the likely pattern of a tumor’s development |
| Cachexia | Syndrome including appetite loss, weight loss, and general weakness |
| Causes of death by cancer | Secondary infections, organ failure, hemorrhage, and undetermined factors |
| What is a Papanicolaou test? | A screening procedure to identify abnormal cells in the cervix |
| What method is used to classify a tumor on the basis of size and the extent of spread? | Staging |
| What method is used to assess how a tumor is likely to change based on the degree of cell abnormality, and to assess prognosis? | Grading |
| What are some cancer treatments | Surgery Chemotherapy (chemical therapy) Radiation therapy (radiotherapy) Laser therapy Immunotherapy New strategies (e.g., rational drugs that target specific molecules, enzymes, or receptors) |
| How are “rational drugs” used in chemotherapy? | Rational drugs target only specific molecules, enzymes, or receptors unique to cancer cells. They affect only cancer cells and ignore normal cells. |
| Inflammatory response | Reduces injury to tissues, thus maintaining homeostasis |
| Signs of inflammation | Redness, heat, swelling, and pain |
| Inflammation mediators | histamine, prostaglandins, and kinins |
| What is pus? | accumulation of white blood cells, dead bacterial cells, and damaged tissue cells at the site of an infection. |
| Is inflammation local to a body part or is systemic (bodywide) | Both |
| Fever | High body temperature caused by a resetting of the body’s “thermostat”; destroys pathogens and enhances immunity |
| What is the difference between acute and chronic inflammation? | Acute inflammation is an immediate protective response that promotes elimination of an irritant and subsequent tissue repair. Chronic inflammation, whether local or systemic, always damages affected tissues |
| How does a fever assist the body in inflammatory disease? | Increased temperature often kills or inhibits pathogenic microbes. |
| What are the body membranes | Epithelial membranes Connective tissue membranes serous membranes Mucous membranes |
| Epithelial membranes | Composed of epithelial tissue and an underlying layer of connective tissue |
| Connective tissue membranes | Composed exclusively of various types of connective tissue |
| What are some of the other functions performed by membranes? | Some membranes anchor organs to each other or to bones. Some membranes secrete lubricating fluids that reduce friction during organ movements [beating heart or lung expansion and membrane lubricants also decrease friction between bones in joints |
| Cutaneous membrane | The skin |
| Serous membranes | Simple squamous epithelium on a connective tissue basement membrane |
| Parietal | Line walls of body cavities |
| Visceral | Cover organs found in body cavities |
| What are the three types of epithelial membranes? | cutaneous, serous, and mucous |
| What are some examples of serous membranes? What are their functions? | Serous membranes are found only on surfaces within closed cavities. Parietal membranes line the walls of cavities like wallpaper in a room. Visceral membranes cover the surface of organs within body cavities. |
| Pleura | Parietal and visceral layers line walls of thoracic cavity and cover the lungs |
| Peritoneum | Parietal and visceral layers line walls of abdominal cavity and cover the organs in that cavity |
| Pleurisy | Inflammation of the serous membranes that line the chest cavity and cover the lungs |
| Peritonitis | Inflammation of the serous membranes in the abdominal cavity that line the walls and cover the abdominal organs |
| Pleurisy is also known as | pleuritis |
| Why might peritonitis sometimes be a serious complication of an infected appendix? | An infected appendix that ruptures will allow the contents of the gastrointestinal tract to enter the peritoneal cavity. |
| What are some examples of mucous membranes in the body? | Mucous membranes line body surfaces that open directly to the exterior such as those lining the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts. |
| What is the mucocutaneous junction? | It is the transitional area that serves as the point of fusion where skin and mucous membranes meet. |
| What are some examples of connective tissue membranes, and what are the functions that they serve? | Synovial membranes line the spaces between bones and joints; they also line the cushion like sacs called bursae |
| What are the two broad classes of body membranes? | Epithelial membranes and connective tissue membranes |
| What composes epithelial membranes? | Epithelium + underlying connective tissue. |
| What composes connective tissue membranes? | Connective tissue only (no epithelium). |
| Cutaneous membrane? | skin |
| Tissue type of serous membranes? | Simple squamous epithelium on CT basement membrane. |
| Parietal vs visceral serous layers? | Parietal lines cavity walls; visceral covers organs. |
| Serous membranes of thorax/abdomen? | Pleura (lungs/thorax); peritoneum (abdomen). |
| Pleurisy vs peritonitis? | Pleurisy: inflamed pleura; Peritonitis: inflamed peritoneum. |
| Where are mucous membranes? | Line surfaces that open to exterior; secrete mucus. |
| Synovial membranes do what/where? | Secrete synovial fluid in joint spaces & bursae. |
| Primary skin layers? | Epidermis and dermis |
| Epidermis epithelium? | Stratified squamous (several layers) |
| Stratum germinativum does what? | Reproduces new cells; contains melanocytes |
| Melanocytes make? | Melanin (brown pigment). |
| As cells surface ward they fill with? | Keratin. |
| Outermost epidermal layer? | Stratum corneum. |
| Pink flush means? | ↑ blood volume/oxygen. |
| Cyanosis means? | ↓ blood oxygen (bluish gray) |
| Vitiligo is? | Patchy light areas from loss of melanocytes. |
| Dermal-epidermal junction | “Spot-weld” support; failure → blisters. |
| Thick vs thin skin? | Thick: friction ridges, no hairs; Thin: shallow grooves, hair. |
| Dermis made of? | CT with collagen & elastic fibers. |
| Dermal papillae? | Peglike rows in upper dermis (form ridges). |
| Aging & wrinkles? | Fewer elastic fibers → wrinkles. |
| Striae? | Stretch marks from overstretching |
| Dermis contains? | Nerves, muscles, follicles, sweat/sebaceous glands, vessels. |
| Birthmarks like strawberry hemangioma from? | Malformed dermal blood vessels. |
| Lanugo? | Soft fetal/newborn hair. |
| Hair needs what to grow? | Follicle with hair papilla. |
| Hair root vs shaft? | Root hidden in follicle; shaft visible |
| Alopecia? | Hair loss |
| Arrector pili? | Smooth muscle; “goose pimples. |
| Meissner corpuscle senses? | Light touch |
| Pacini corpuscle senses? | Pressure. |
| Nails produced by? | Epidermal cells over terminal digits. |
| Visible nail part? | Nail body; lunula = crescent near root. |
| Nail bed color change hints at? | Blood flow changes. |
| Onycholysis? | Nail separates from bed. |
| Nail pitting seen in? | Psoriasis. |
| Most numerous sweat glands? | Eccrine; heat regulation. |
| Apocrine glands where/what? | Axilla & genitalia; thicker, milky secretion (bacteria → odor). |
| Sebaceous glands secrete? | Sebum (oil); ↑ in adolescence; hormone-regulated |
| Blackhead? | Darkened sebum in duct. |
| Acne vulgaris? | Inflamed sebaceous ducts. |
| Five primary skin functions? | Protection, temperature regulation, sensation, excretion, vitamin D synthesis. |
| Protection includes defense from? | Microbes, UV, chemicals, cuts/tears. |
| Bruising causes? | Discoloration as leaked blood breaks down. |
| When are skin grafts needed? | Replace skin destroyed by disease/trauma. |
| Temp regulation mechanisms? | Sweat secretion & blood flow near surface. |
| Skin senses? | Touch, pressure, pain, heat (and pigment variation). |
| Sweat can excrete? | Uric acid, ammonia, urea. |
| Vitamin D pathway? | UV → precursor in skin → liver & kidneys form active vitamin D. |
| Define lesion | Any measurable variation from normal structure. |
| Elevated lesions (examples)? | Papule, plaque, vesicle, pustule, crust, wheal. |
| What are wheals? | hives |
| Flat/depressed lesions? | Macule; excoriation, ulcer, fissure. |
| Burn survival depends on? | Total area & depth |
| First-degree burn? | Partial-thickness; epidermis surface only. |
| Second-degree burn? | Partial-thickness; deep epidermis + upper dermis injured. |
| Third-degree burn? | Full-thickness; epidermis & dermis destroyed. |
| Fourth-degree burn? | Extends into muscle/bone. |
| Third-degree pain initially? | None (nerve endings destroyed) → intense pain later. |
| Rule of nines purpose? | Estimate adult BSA burned. |
| Rule of nines division? | 11 areas × 9% + 1% genital region |
| Impetigo cause? | Staph or strep; highly contagious |
| Tinea is? | Fungal (mycosis) infection; multiple forms. |
| Warts cause? | Papillomavirus (benign neoplasm). |
| Boils/furuncles? | Staph infections of hair follicles. |
| Scabies cause? | Parasitic infestation |
| Decubitus ulcers due to? | Pressure ↓ blood flow locally. |
| Urticaria (hives) mechanism? | Fluid loss from vessels → red wheals. |
| Scleroderma? | Vessel/CT disorder; skin hardening (localized/systemic) |
| Psoriasis hallmark? | Chronic inflammation with scaly plaques |
| Eczema description? | Papules, vesicles, crusts; symptom of underlying condition. |
| Most common skin cancer here? | Squamous cell carcinoma (hard, raised tumors). |
| Basal cell carcinoma appearance? | Papules with central crater; rarely spreads. |
| Melanoma? | Malignant melanocytes (often in nevus); most serious. |
| Top risk for common skin cancers? | Sunlight exposure. |
| Kaposi sarcoma? | Purple lesions; associated with AIDS/immune deficiency. |
Created by:
destiny638
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