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A&P Exam 2
PN111L
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| What do cells contain? | Cytoplasm |
| What is cytoplasm | A Substance found only in cells |
| What are organelles | specialized structures within the cytoplasm |
| What is the cell interior surrounded by | A Plasma Membrane |
| what does the plasma membrane form? | Forms outer boundary of cell |
| What is the Plasma membrane composed of | Composed of a thin, two-layered membrane of phospholipids containing proteins |
| What does cytoplasm do | Fills space between plasma membrane and nucleus |
| What is another word for ribosomes | Protein Factories |
| Where might the Ribosomes attach to? | May attach to rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) or lie free in cytoplasm |
| What are ribosomes made of | Made of two tiny subunits of mostly ribosomal RNA |
| What do ribosomes manufacture? | Manufactures enzymes and other protein compounds |
| What are the types of the Endoplasmic Reticulum? | Rough and smooth |
| What does the rough ER do | collects, folds, and transports proteins made by ribosomes |
| What does the smoothe ER do | synthesizes chemicals; makes new membrane |
| What is the ER defined as | A network of connecting sacs and canals |
| What does Endoplasmic Reticulum do | Carrys substances through fluid cytoplasm |
| What is another name for the Golgi Apparatus | Chemical processing and packaging center |
| What is the Golgi apparatus | A Group of flattened sacs near the nucleus |
| What does the Golgi apparatus do? | Collects chemicals into vesicles that move from the smooth ER outward to plasma membrane |
| What molecule does the Mitochondria contain | DNA |
| What is the Mitochondrion | A organelle in which ATP generation occurs |
| Another name for the mitochondria | The Powerhouse of the Cell |
| What is mitochondria involved with | energy-releasing chemical reactions |
| What is a lysosomes | Membranous organelles containing various enzymes that can dissolve most cellular compound |
| What is another name for lysosomes | Digestive bags or suicide bags of cells |
| What is the function of the lysosomes | To break apart large molecules |
| What is the structure of a lysosome | "bubble" of hydrolysis enzymes encased by membrane |
| What is the structure of the mitochondria | A membranous capsule containing a large folded internal membrane embedded with enzymes |
| What is the structure of the Golgi Apparatus | Stack of flattened, membranous sacs |
| What is the structure of the ER | Membranous network of interconnected canals and sacs, some with ribosomes attached (rough ER) and some without attachment (smooth ER) |
| Function of the Centrosome | Serves as microtubule-organizing center of cell, helping to move cell components |
| What is the structure of the centrosome | Region of cytoplasm near nucleus containing the centrioles |
| What is a Microvilli | Small, fingerlike extensions of the plasma membrane |
| What is the function of the Mircrovilli | To increase absorptive surface area of the cell |
| What is a Cilia | Fine, hairlike extensions found on free or exposed surfaces of some cells |
| What is the function of the Cilia | Sensory "antennae" to detect conditions outside the cell: some cilia also move substances over surfaces of the cell. Another thing is that they are capable of moving in unison in a wavelike fashion |
| What are two additional properties of cilia? | They can move as a group in one direction and can propel mucus upward over the cells that line the respiratory tract |
| What is the role that centrioles play during cell division? | Centrioles have fine tubules that play an important role during cell division. |
| Describe the protective function of lysosomes | They contain enzymes that can digest food and substances that invade the cell. |
| What is unique about flagella with regard to humans | The male sperm cell is the only human cell with a flagellum |
| What is a flagella | Single projections extending from cell surfaces |
| Are they smaller or larger than Cilia | Much larger |
| What is the Nucleus | A double-membraned, spherical envelope containing DNA strands |
| What does the nucleus contain | Nuclear pores |
| What is the function of the | contains DNA ,which dictates protein synthesis ,thereby playing in an essential role in other cell activities such as transport ,metabolism ,growth ,and hereditary |
| What is the purpose of the nuclear pores in the nuclear envelope? | The nuclear envelope has many tiny openings called nuclear pores that permit large molecules to move into and out of the nucleus |
| What is the genetic code? | DNA is the genetic code for building both structural proteins and functional proteins. |
| What is the chromatin granules | are made of proteins around which are the wound segments of the long thread like molecules called DNA |
| what do chromosomes look like | They look like short rod like structures |
| What does the chromatin and chromosomes control | Controls cell because it contains DNA, the genetic code—instructions for making proteins, which in turn determine cell structure and function |
| How many chromosomes have in the nucleus | 46 |
| What are some examples of specialized organelles? | Flagellum of sperm cell gives motility, allowing movement of sperm through the female reproductive tract, thus increasing chances for fertilization |
| What is passive Transport | Do not require added energy, Result in movement “down a concentration gradient |
| What are the two transport processes for moving substances into and out of cells? | Diffusion and filtration |
| How are diffusion and filtration different? | Diffusion is a passive transport process; filtration is the movement of water and solutes through a membrane because of a greater pushing force on one side of the membrane. |
| What are osmosis and dialysis? | Specialized examples of diffusion |
| What are solutes? | Substances dissolved in water |
| Is diffusion movement from high to low or is it low to high concentration? | High to Low |
| Does diffusion require energry | No |
| What is diffusion | the process by which substances scatter themselves evenly throughout an available space |
| What is Osmosis | diffusion of water (when some solutes cannot cross the membrane) |
| What is Dialysis | diffusion of solutes |
| What is Filtration | Movement of water and solutes caused by hydrostatic pressure on one side of membrane |
| What is Filtration responsible for | Urine formation |
| Where does active transport take place in | Living Cells |
| Where does active transport take energy from | Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) |
| What is ATP | A substance produced in the mitochondria using energy from nutrients; capable of releasing that energy to do work for the cell. During active transport, ATP breaks down and releases the energy |
| What is Ion pumps | A protein complex in the cell membrane |
| What does Ion pump use | use energy from ATP to move substances across cell membranes against their concentration gradients |
| What is an example of a Ion pump using ATP | sodium-potassium pump; calcium pump |
| What is cystic fibrosis | characterized by abnormally thick secretions in the airways and digestive ducts, results from failed Cl− (chloride ion) transport |
| What is cholera | a bacterial infection that causes Cl− and water to leak from cells lining the intestines, resulting in severe diarrhea and water loss |
| What does DNA molecule ressemble | a long, narrow ladder twisted round and round its axis; shaped in a double helix |
| What are the bases of DNA | Adenine, Thymine, guanine, and cytosine |
| What molecules play a crucial role in protein synthesis and mitosis? | DNA and RNA |
| What are the components of DNA? | Sugar, phosphate, nitrogen bases |
| What are the base pairs of DNA? | Adenine-thymine and guanine-cytosine |
| What is a gene | a specific segment of base pairs in a chromosome |
| What is Complementary base pairing | Each step of DNA ladder contains a base pair; adenine-thymine or cytosine-guanine |
| What is Genetic code | Sequence of base pairs determines heredity |
| What does Enzyme facilitate | chemical reactions |
| What does cellular chemical reactions determine? | cell structure and function |
| Where is the DNA contained in | the cell nucleus |
| where does protein synthesis occur | The actual process of protein synthesis occurs in ribosomes and on ER |
| How does the messenger RNA form | Double-stranded DNA separates |
| What does the stand of mRNA duplicate | duplicates a particular gene (base-pair sequence) from a segment of DNA |
| How does mRNA molecules direct protein synthesis in ribosomes and ER | mRNA molecules pass from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, where they direct protein synthesis in ribosomes and ER |
| What is Translation involved in | Involves synthesis of proteins in cytoplasm by ribosomes |
| What does translation require | Requires use of information contained in mRNA |
| What is codon defined as | A Series of three nucleotide bases that act as a code for a specific amino acid |
| What is often the basis of diease | Abnormal DNA that is inherited, or that results from damage |
| What are the factors that cause damange to DNA | chemical or mechanical irritants, radiation, bacteria, and viruses |
| Name the four stages of mitosis inorder | Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase |
| What is the end goal of mitosis | To form two daughter cells |
| What is interphase | Period when the cell is not actively dividing |
| What is DNA replication | Process by which each half of a DNA molecule becomes a whole molecule identical to the original DNA molecule; precedes mitosis |
| What is Mitosis | Process in cell division that distributes identical chromosomes (DNA molecules) to each new cell formed when the original cell divides |
| What do spindle fibers resemble? | “Guidewires” to help the chromosomes move toward the opposite ends of the cell later in mitosis |
| What happens in Prophase | Chromatin granules become organized Chromosomes (pairs of linked chromatids) appear Centrioles move away from nucleus Nuclear envelope disappears, freeing genetic material Spindle fibers appear |
| What happens of Metaphase | Chromosomes align across center of cell Spindle fibers attach themselves to each chromatid |
| What happens to the centrioles in metaphase | They migrated to opposite ends of the cell. |
| What happens in anaphse | Centromeres break apart Separated chromatids now called chromosomes Chromosomes are pulled to opposite ends of cell Cleavage furrow develops at end of anaphase |
| What happens in telophase | Cell division is completed Nuclei appear in daughter cells Nuclear envelope and nucleoli appear Cytoplasm is divided (cytokinesis) Daughter cells become fully functional |
| What is neoplasm | a new mass of cells [tumor] that may exhibit anaplasia—a condition in which cells change in orientation to each other and fail to mature normally or differentiate into a specialized cell type |
| What is hypertrophy | A increase in size of individual cells; increasing size of tissue |
| What is Atrophy | A decrease in size of individual cells; decreasing size of tissue |
| What is hyperplasia | An increase in cell reproduction, increasing size of tissue |
| What is anaplasia | A production of abnormal, undifferentiated cells |
| What are the four main kinds of tissues | Epithelial tissue Connective tissue Muscle tissue Nervous tissue |
| What epithelial tissue covers | The body and lines body cavities |
| What happens to the cells in the epithelial tissue | Cells packed closely together with little matrix |
| What are the four shapes of epithelial cells | Squamous, cuboidal, columnar, and transitional |
| What ways are the epithelial tissue arranged | As a simple arrangement [a single layer of cells of the same shape] or as a stratified arrangement [many layers of cells—named for the shape of cells in the outer layer] |
| Where can stratified squamous cells be found? | Skin and mucous membranes |
| What are the epithelia tissues classified by (arrangement of cells) | Simple Stratified |
| What is the function of the simple squamous epithelium | To transport |
| What is the simple squamous epithelium | Single layer of scalelike cells |
| What is the function of the Stratified squamous epithelium | Protection |
| What is the Stratified squamous epithelium | Several layers of closely packed cells |
| What does the Simple Cuboidal Epithelium consist of | a singular layer of flattened cells that have irregular shape cells when viewed from the surface |
| How might Simple Cuboidal Epithelium be grouped | into glands May secrete into ducts, directly into blood, and on body surface |
| What does Simple Cuboidal Epithelium often specialize in | secretory activity |
| What are examples of secretions in the Simple Cuboidal Epithelium | saliva, digestive juice, and hormones |
| What is the special function of simple columnar epithelium? | They contain “open spaces” with specialized goblet cells that produce mucus |
| Where can simple columnar epithelium be found? | They can be found lining the inner surface of the stomach, intestines, and some areas of the respiratory and reproductive tracts |
| How does pseudostratified epithelium differ from stratified epithelium? | Each cell of the pseudostratified epithelium touches basement membrane. |
| What are examples of substances secreted through glands of tubules made up of simple cuboidal epithelial cells? | Exocrine glands—saliva, digestive juices, sweat; endocrine glands—hormones from the pituitary or thyroid and other glands |
| What does the pseudostratified epithelium touch | Each cell touches basement membrane |
| What does the pseudostratified epithelium line | The trachea |
| Where is connective tissue found? | Connective tissue is the most abundant and widely distributed tissue in the body; it is found in skin, membranes, muscles, bones, nerves, and all internal organs |
| What is the most abundant tissue in the body | Connective tissue |
| What type is the most widely distributed of all connective tissue? | Areolar tissue |
| What type of tissue provides great strength and flexibility but no stretch? | Fibrous tissue |
| Osteons are also called | haversian systems |
| What is the function of hemopoietic tissue? | It forms blood cells and lymphatic system cells; it is also called hematopoietic tissue |
| Areolar define | Glue that holds organs together |
| Adipose (fat) Define | Lipid storage is primary function |
| Define Fibrous | Bundles of strong collagen fibers (e.g., tendon) |
| Define bone | Matrix is calcified; function is support and protection |
| Define Cartilage | Matrix is consistency of gristle like gel; chondrocyte is the cell type |
| Define blood | Matrix is fluid; functions are transportation and protection |
| Describe the structure and distinctive traits of skeletal muscle cells. | Skeletal muscle cells are striated, voluntary, and characterized by many cross striations and many nuclei per cell. Individual cells are long and threadlike and are often called fibers |
| Give some examples of smooth muscles | Muscles of the digestive tract and respiratory tubes) |
| Define the skeletal muscle tissue | Attaches to bones; also called striated or voluntary; control is voluntary; striations apparent when viewed under a microscope |
| Define the cardiac muscle tissue | Also called striated or involuntary; composes heart wall; ordinarily cannot control contractions |
| Define the smooth muscle tissue | Also called nonstriated (visceral) or involuntary; no cross striations; found in blood vessels and other tube-shaped organs |
| What is the function of the nervous tissue | Rapid communication between body structures and control of body functions |
| Give a general description of a neuron. | A neuron is a functional or conducting unit with special connecting and supporting cells called glia |
| What does an axon do? | An axon transmits the nerve impulse away from the cell body. |
| What does a dendrite do? | A dendrite transmits the impulses toward the cell body |
| How many types of processes in the neuron are there and what are they ? | 2 and they are Axon and dendrite |
| What is a Gila (neuroglia)? | Supportive and connecting cells |
| What does tissue repair mean | Usually accomplished by means of regeneration of tissue |
| What types of tissues regenerate easily | Epithelial and connective tissues |
| Do all tissues regenerate? If not, name the tissues that do not regenerate. | Nerve tissue has a limited capacity to regenerate, but it is not as limited as once thought. |
| Define Organ | Structure made up of two or more kinds of tissues that can together perform a more complex function than a single tissue |
| Define Organ system | Group of organs that perform a more complex function than can any organ alone |
| What is the Integumentary System structure | Only one organ, the skin; has many appendages (attached structures) Skin appendages Hair Nails Microscopic sense receptors Sweat glands Oil glands |
| What is the function of the Integumentary System | Protection: Primary function Regulation of body temperature Synthesis of chemicals Sense organ |
| What is the Skeletal system structure | bones are the organs of the skeletal system and contains ligaments and joints and cartilage |
| What does cartilage do | connects and cushions joined bones |
| What are ligaments | Bands of fibrous tissue that hold bones together |
| What are joints | Connections between bones that make movement possible |
| How many organs (bones) are there in the human skeletal system? | 206 |
| What is the function of the skeletal system | Supporting framework for entire body Protection of brain and internal organs Movement (with joints and muscles) Storage of minerals Formation of blood cells |
| Related tissues such as cartilage, ligaments, and joints are part of the skeletal system. What are their functions? | They provide the body with a framework for support and protection. Joints help movement. |
| Name another function of bones. | To store important minerals |
| What is the function of red bone marrow? | To create red blood cells |
| What is the difference between voluntary (striated) and involuntary (smooth) muscle? | Voluntary—under conscious control; involuntary—found in internal organs and not under conscious control |
| What is cardiac muscle? | Specialized muscle tissue in the heart |
| What is the function of the muscular system | Movement |
| what is the skeletomuscular system | Combination of the skeletal and muscular systems |
| What is the structure of the muscular system | Muscles are the primary organs Voluntary or striated skeletal muscle Involuntary or smooth muscle tissue in walls of some organs Cardiac muscle in wall of the heart |
| What are some examples of functions of the nervous system? | Some examples are communication between body organs, integration of body functions, control of body functions, and recognition of sensory stimuli. |
| What are nerve impulses, and what do they do? | Nerve impulses are signals that permit rapid and precise control of diverse body functions |
| What are the two systems in the nervous system? | Central nervous system (CNS), And the Peripheral nervous system (PNS) |
| What is in the central nervous system (CNS) | Brain and spinal cord |
| What is in the peripheral nervous system | Cranial nerves and their branches Spinal nerves and their branches Sense organs |
| What are examples of stimuli? | Heat, light, sound, pressure, or temperature |
| What is the function of the nervous system | Communication between body organs Integration of body functions Control of body functions Recognition of sensory stimuli |
| What is another name for the organs of the endocrine system? | Ductless glands |
| What is endocrine system structure? | Pituitary gland Pineal gland Hypothalamus Thyroid gland Parathyroid glands Thymus gland Adrenal glands Pancreas Ovaries (female) Testes (male) |
| What are some examples of hormone regulation? | Hormones control growth, regulate metabolism, regulate reproduction, play a role in fluid and electrolyte balance, play a role in acid-base balance, and play a role in energy metabolism |
| What is the neuroendocrine system | Combination of nervous and endocrine systems |
| Why is transportation so important? | Transportation is critical for continuous movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide, nutrients, hormones, and other substances |
| What elements are transported by the cardiovascular system? | Oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, metabolic waste products, and hormones |
| How does this system regulate body temperature? | The circulatory system regulates body temperature by distributing heat throughout the body and assisting in retaining or releasing heat by regulating blood flow near the body surface |
| What is another name for the Cardiovascular system? | Circulatory system |
| What is in the cardiovascular system? | Heart and Blood vessels |
| What is lymph? | A whitish, watery fluid that contains lymphocytes, proteins, and fatty molecules |
| How is lymph formed? | It comes from interstitial fluid diffusing into lymph vessels |
| What does the lymphatic system transport? | Fluids and small fat molecules, bacteria, cancer cells, and other debris |
| what is the lymphatic system structure | Lymphatic vessels Lymph nodes and tonsils Thymus Spleen |
| What is the function of lymphatic system? | Transportation of lymph Immunity |
| How does lymph move through the system? | Lymph does not circulate, but it flows through lymphatic vessels and eventually enters the circulatory system through veins |
| How does lymph enter the circulatory system? | It enters through large thoracic ducts that empty into large veins. |
| Describe phagocytes and secretory cells. | Phagocytes are special immune cells that have the ability to attack, engulf, and destroy harmful bacteria directly by phagocytosis. Secretory cells produce protein compounds called antibodies and complements |
| What is a phagocyte | A protective cell |
| What is secretory cell | Defensive protein compounds |
| What are protein compounds (secretory cells) | Antibodies Complements |
| How do chemical reactions provide protection? | The antigen-antibody reaction protects against invading organisms. |
| What is the function of the immune system | To protect from harmful agents |
| How does the respiratory system filter irritants? | Irritants are filtered by the sticky mucus that covers the lining of many respiratory passages. |
| What are alveoli? | Alveoli are thin-walled sacs of the lungs |
| What is the respiratory system structure? | Nose Pharynx Larynx Trachea Bronchi Lungs |
| What is the function of the respiratory system | Exchange of waste gas (carbon dioxide) for oxygen in the alveoli of the lungs Filtration of irritants from inspired air Regulation of acid-base balance |
| Describe the passage of air through the respiratory system. | Contraction of the muscles of the respiratory system creates negative pressure for atmospheric air to rush into the lungs [alveoli], and relaxation of those muscles allows air to rush out. |
| What are the form and function of the primary organs of the digestive system? | They form a tube, open at both ends, called the gastrointestinal tract, that takes in food, absorbs its nutrients, and eliminates the waste |
| What is in the digestive system? | Mouth Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Small intestine Large intestine Rectum Anal canal |
| how do the Primary and accessory organs work together? | The primary and accessory organs work together to ensure proper digestion and absorption of nutrients. |
| What are the accessory organs? | Assist the digestive process |
| What is in the accessory organs? | Teeth Salivary glands Tongue Liver Gallbladder Pancreas Appendix |
| What is the function of the secondary (accessory) organs in the digestive system? | They assist in the mechanical and chemical breakdown of ingested food |
| How is the appendix different from the other organs in the digestive system? | It is not a functional part of the system. |
| What is appendicitis? | Appendicitis is inflammation of the appendix |
| How do the primary and accessory organs work together? | Accessory organs assist in the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food. |
| What is the function of the digestive system? | Mechanical and chemical breakdown (digestion) of food Absorption of nutrients Elimination of undigested waste product Referred to as feces Appendix holds bacteria that assist digestion |
| What is the function of the kidneys? | Kidneys “clear” or clean the blood of metabolic waste products. |
| What is in the Urinary system | Kidneys Ureters Urinary bladder Urethra (part of both urinary and reproductive systems in males) |
| How is the passage of urine different for males and females? | In the male, the urethra passes through the penis and also functions in reproduction. In the female, the urinary and reproductive systems are completely separate, so the urethra only carries urine |
| What is the function of the of the urinary system | “Clearing” or cleaning blood of waste products Excreted from the body as urine Electrolyte balance Water balance Acid-base balance |
| What is the function of the male reproductive system? | The function is production and delivery of sperm into the female reproductive tract. |
| What is in the male reproductive system | Gonads Testes Other structures Vas deferens Urethra Prostate External genitalia (penis and scrotum) |
| What is unique about the female reproductive system? | The female reproductive organs produce ova, receive the male sex cells [sperm], facilitate fertilization and transfer of the sex cells to the uterus, and facilitate the development, birth, and nourishment of offspring |
| What is the structure of the female reproductive system | Gonads Ovaries Other structures Uterus Uterine (fallopian) tubes Vagina External genitalia (vulva) Mammary glands (breasts) |
| How do ova pass through the female reproductive system? | The penis deposits sperm into the vagina; the flagellum of each sperm propels it through the cervix, uterus, and fallopian tubes until it encounters the ovum. The ova is brought into the fallopian tubes by undulating action of the fimbria. |
| What is the function of the reproductive system both male and female? | Survival of genes Production of sex cells Male: Sperm Female: Ova Transfer and fertilization of sex cells Development and birth of offspring Nourishment of offspring Production of sex hormones |
| Name all the body systems? (HINT: there is 11) | Integumentary Skeletal Muscular Nervous Endocrine Cardiovascular Lymphatic/Immune Respiratory Digestive Urinary Reproductive |
| Are all body organ systems necessary for survival? | Not all body organ systems are necessary for survival. The spleen, appendix, tonsils, eyes, arms, and legs are not necessary for survival |
| What is a prosthesis? | A prosthesis is an artificial replacement for a nonvital organ |
| Provide examples of organs that can be transplanted. | Kidney, liver, pancreas, lung, small intestine, heart |
| Provide examples of free-flap surgeries. | breasts remodeled from skin and muscle tissue taken from thighs, buttocks, or abdomen. Parts of the intestine can be used to repair the urinary bladder. Toes can be transplanted to replace missing fingers |
| How are stem cells used in “organ engineering | These primitive cells can be differentiated into specific cell and tissue types. |
| Why would you get an organ replacement? | Loss of function in nonvital organs is not immediately life-threatening Loss of function in vital organs is immediately life-threatening |
| Loss of function in organs can be treated by organ replacement | Nonvital organ replacement (prostheses) Vital organ transplantation Surgical transplants Free-flap surgeries Stem cell treatment |
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