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Physiology
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Positive Feedback | Definition: A mechanism that amplifies a change. Example: Labor contractions increasing oxytocin release. |
| . Metabolism | Includes: Catabolism (breaking down molecules to release energy) Anabolism (building molecules using energy) |
| Homeostasis | Definition: Maintaining a stable internal environment Example:Sweating to cool the body when overheated |
| Levels of Organization (smallest to largest) | Chemical → Cellular → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism |
| Negative Feedback | Definition: A control mechanism that reverses a change to maintain balance. Example: Blood sugar regulation by insulin |
| pH Scale (Power of Hydrogen) Ranges from 0–14 | <7: Acidic 7: Neutral >7: Basic (alkaline) |
| Atoms & Molecules | Atom: Smallest unit of matter Molecule: Group of atoms bonded together Ions: Charged atoms (e.g., Na⁺, Cl⁻) |
| Water’s Importance | Solvent for chemical reactions Regulates temperature Lubricant (e.g., joints) |
| Organic Molecules in the Body | Carbohydrates: Main energy source Lipids: Energy storage, insulation Proteins: Structure, enzymes, hormones Nucleic Acids: DNA/RNA, genetic code |
| Cell Structure (Main Parts) | Plasma Membrane: Controls what enters/exits Cytoplasm: Fluid where reactions happen Nucleus: Contains DNA |
| Organelles | Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell (ATP) Ribosomes: Make proteins Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Rough ER: Has ribosomes (protein synthesis) Smooth ER: Lipid synthesis Golgi Apparatus: Packages proteins Lysosomes: Break down waste |
| Cell Transport | Passive (no energy): Diffusion, osmosis, filtration Active (needs ATP): Active transport, endocytosis, exocytosis |
| Mitosis (Cell Division) | Produces 2 identical cells Phases: Prophase → Metaphase → Anaphase → Telophase → Cytokinesis |
| Epithelial Tissue | Covers body surfaces Lines organs/cavities Types: Squamous, cuboidal, columnar |
| Connective Tissue | Supports, binds, stores fat Examples: Bone, blood, cartilage, adipose |
| Muscle Tissue | Movement and heat Types: Skeletal, cardiac, smooth |
| Nervous Tissue | Sends impulses Cells: Neurons (signal) & glial cells (support) |
| Membranes | Mucous: Line body openings Serous: Line cavities & organs (e.g., pleura) Cutaneous: Skin Synovial: Joints |
| 3 Main Layers of Skin | Epidermis: Outer layer, avascular, made of stratified squamous epithelium Dermis: Middle, thicker layer with nerves, blood vessels, glands Hypodermis (subcutaneous): Fat and connective tissue for insulation & cushioning |
| Functions of the Skin | Protection (barrier to microbes) Sensation (nerve endings) Temperature regulation (sweating, blood flow) Vitamin D synthesis Excretion (via sweat) |
| Epidermis Layers (top to bottom) | Stratum corneum – dead, keratin-filled cells Stratum lucidum – only in thick skin (palms/soles) Stratum granulosum Stratum spinosum Stratum basale – where mitosis happens "come lets get sun burned" |
| Skin Pigments | Melanin: Brown/black pigment from melanocytes (protects from UV) Carotene: Orange/yellow pigment Hemoglobin: Red pigment in blood affecting skin tone |
| Accessory Structures | Hair: Insulation, protection Nails: Protection for fingers/toes |
| Glands: | Sebaceous (oil): Secretes sebum into hair follicles Sudoriferous (sweat): Eccrine (cooling) & apocrine (odor areas like armpits) |
| 5 Functions of the Skeleton | Support Protection (e.g., skull protects brain) Movement (with muscles) Mineral storage (especially calcium & phosphorus) Blood cell production (in red marrow) |
| Bone Types | Long: Femur, humerus Short: Carpals, tarsals Flat: Skull, ribs, sternum Irregular: Vertebrae, pelvis Sesamoid: Patella |
| Structure of a Long Bone | Diaphysis: Shaft Epiphysis: Ends (contain red marrow) Medullary cavity: Contains yellow marrow (fat) Periosteum: Outer covering Endosteum: Lines inner cavity |
| Compact vs Spongy Bone | Compact bone: Dense, outer layer, made of osteons Spongy bone: Light, inner layer, contains red marrow |
| Bone Cells | Osteoblasts: Build bone Osteocytes: Maintain bone Osteoclasts: Break down bone |
| Ossification (Bone Formation) | Begins in fetus Endochondral ossification: Most bones, formed from cartilage Intramembranous ossification: Flat bones (like skull) |
| Joints (Articulations) | Fibrous: Immovable (e.g., skull sutures) Cartilaginous: Slight movement (e.g., spine discs) Synovial: Freely movable (e.g., knee, elbow) |
| Types of Synovial Joints | Hinge: Elbow, knee Ball & socket: Shoulder, hip Pivot: Neck (atlas/axis) Saddle: Thumb Gliding: Wrist Condyloid: Finger joints |
| Bone Healing Stages | Hematoma Fibrocartilage callus Bony callus Bone remodeling |
| 3 Types of Muscle Tissue | Type Location Control Appearance Skeletal. Attached to bones Voluntary Striated Cardiac Heart Involuntary Striated with intercalated discs Smooth Walls of organs/ vessels Involuntary Non-striated |
| Main Functions of Muscles | Movement (body and substances inside the body) Posture Heat production (shivering = increased body heat) Stabilization of joints |
| Muscle Structure (Smallest to Largest) | Myofilaments (actin & myosin) Myofibrils Muscle fibers (cells) Fascicles Muscle |
| Sarcomere | Definition: Functional unit of a muscle fiber Made of: Actin (thin filament) Myosin (thick filament) Z lines: Define boundaries of each sarcomere Sliding filament theory: Myosin pulls actin to contract the muscle |
| Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ) | Where a motor neuron communicates with a muscle fiber Releases acetylcholine (ACh) → triggers muscle contraction Muscle contraction requires calcium (Ca²⁺) and ATP |
| Muscle Contraction Steps | 1)Nerve signal → releases ACh 2)ACh binds to receptors on muscle fiber 3)Calcium is released 4)Actin and myosin slide past each other (contraction) 5)ATP needed to release and reset myosin |
| Types of Muscle Contractions | Isotonic: Muscle shortens or lengthens (movement) Concentric: Muscle shortens Eccentric: Muscle lengthens Isometric: Muscle contracts but doesn’t change length (no movement) |
| Muscle Energy Sources | ATP – immediate source Creatine phosphate – quick backup Anaerobic respiration – no oxygen, creates lactic acid Aerobic respiration – uses oxygen, most efficient |
| Muscle Fatigue | Caused by: Lack of ATP Lactic acid buildup Low oxygen or glucose Results in weaker contractions |
| Muscle Terms | Origin: Attachment to immovable bone Insertion: Attachment to movable bone Agonist (Prime Mover): Main muscle doing the work Antagonist: Opposes the prime mover Synergist: Helps the prime mover Fixator: Stabilizes the origin |
| . Muscle Tone | Constant, slight tension in resting muscles Maintains posture |
| Nervous System Divisions | **Central Nervous System (CNS)** Processes info & coordinates activity Brain & Spinal Cord **Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)** Connects CNS to limbs/organs Nerves outside CNS |
| PNS Subdivisions | *Somatic Nervous System: Voluntary control of skeletal muscles *Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Involuntary control of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands *Sympathetic: "Fight or flight" *Parasympathetic: "Rest and diges |
| Neuron Structure | Cell Body (Soma)Contains nucleus Dendrites Receive signals Axon Sends signals away from the cell body Myelin Sheath Insulates axon, speeds signal (made by Schwann cells in PNS) Nodes of Ranvier Gaps in myelin for signal jumping (saltatory conduction |
| Types of Neurons | Sensory (Afferent): Carry impulses to CNS Motor (Efferent): Carry impulses from CNS to muscles/glands Interneurons: Connect neurons within CNS |
| Resting Membrane Potential | Inside of neuron is negatively charged (~ -70 mV) compared to outside Maintained by sodium-potassium pump (3 Na⁺ out, 2 K⁺ in) using ATP |
| Action Potential (Nerve Impulse) Steps | *Resting state Neuron is polarized *Depolarization Na⁺ channels open, Na⁺ rushes in → inside becomes positive *Repolarization K⁺ channels open, K⁺ rushes out → inside becomes negative again |
| Action Potential (Nerve Impulse) Steps Cont'd | *Hyperpolarization Slight overshoot before returning to resting potential *Refractory period Neuron can’t fire again immediately |
| Synapse | Junction between neurons or neuron and effector cell Neurotransmitters released to pass signal across synaptic cleft Examples: Acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin |
| Brain Major Parts & Functions | Cerebrum: Thought, memory, voluntary movement Cerebellum: Coordination, balance Brainstem (midbrain, pons, medulla): Basic life functions (heartbeat, breathing) Thalamus: Relay station for sensory info Hypothalamus: Homeostasis, hormone control |
| Spinal Cord Functions | Conducts impulses to/from brain Controls reflexes (automatic responses) |
| Reflex Arc Components | Receptor: Detects stimulus Sensory neuron: Sends impulse to CNS Interneuron: Processes info Motor neuron: Sends impulse to effector Effector: Muscle/gland that responds |
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