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BIO EXAM #3
bio exam 7, 8, 9, 10
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) | hereditary molecule that is passed from parents to offspring. instruction manual for how to build individual. found in nucleus in form of chromosomes |
| chromosome | DNA molecule wrapped around proteins. 23 pairs, One chromosome from each pair is inherited from the biological mother, and the other from the father |
| nucleotides | consists of sugar, phosphate, and base. Sugar and phosphate form outside backbone and bases form internal rungs. |
| double helix | Two strands of nucleotides pair up and twist around each other to form a spiral-shape |
| complementary | A always pairs with T, C always pairs with G |
| DNA replication | hydrogen bonds that hold base pairs together are broken and the helicase enzyme unwinds the DNA helix, Second, the DNA polymerase enzyme reads the DNA and adds complementary nucleotides |
| DNA polymerase | enzyme reads the DNA and adds complementary nucleotides using the rules of base pairing (A to T, C to G) |
| semiconservative | DNA molecule consists of one original strand and one newly synthesized one |
| Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) | laboratory technique scientists use to amplify (replicate) a specific DNA segment to study it. |
| DNA profile | allows us to identify the unique characteristics in the DNA of a person. Determining the sequence of the entire genome is expensive and unnecessary, so we just analyze a portion of the genome. |
| Primers | short segments of DNA that guide DNA polymerase to the section of DNA to copy |
| Genome | the complete set of DNA in an organism |
| Short tandem repeats (STR) | a good type of DNA segment to use for DNA profiling. We can use PCR to target STRs. |
| Gel electrophoresis | Used to separate STRs, a laboratory technique that separates DNA fragments by size. Smaller fragments travel farther in the gel than larger fragments. |
| Coding regions | portions of genes DNA or RNA that contain the instructions for making a specific protein |
| Protein | macromolecule made of repeating amino acid subunits. Many functions, such as muscle contraction, facilitate chemical reactions and fight infection. |
| amino acid | Building blocks of proteins, 20 different amino acids, All have the same basic core structure, Each also has a unique chemical side group. |
| gene | encode instructions for proteins, found on chromosomes, a sequence of DNA |
| Gene expression | the process of converting information from the coding sequence of a gene into protein, synthesis of a protein from a gene |
| Allele | one of two or more versions of DNA sequence at a given genomic location |
| regulatory sequence | on-off switch for the gene |
| coding sequence | controls the amino acid sequence of the protein |
| transcription | involves converting DNA to RNA, occurs in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells. |
| translation | involves converting RNA to protein, occurs on ribosomes in cytoplasm |
| Messenger RNA (mRNA) | single stranded RNA molecule that carries genetic information from DNA to ribosomes, where it directs protein synthesis |
| RNA polymerase | binds to the regulatory sequence of the genes coding region. The DNA strands unwind, exposing the coding sequence of the gene. |
| Ribosome | acts as "protein factories" by translating genetic info from mRNA into proteins- in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells |
| codon | groups of three nucleotides that the mRNA reads, specifies a particular amino acid |
| Transfer RNA (tRNA) | carries an amino acid to the mRNA and ribosome by using its anticodon to find a matching mRNA codon. |
| anticodon | three-nucleotide sequence in tRNA that is complementary to a specific codon in mRNA during protein synthesis |
| genetic code | Set of rules relating particular mRNA codons to particular amino acids, 64 possible codons code for 20 different amino acids |
| transgenic | an organism that has had its genome altered by the introduction of a gene(s) from another species, often through genetic engineering techniques- has received recombinant gene |
| genetic engineering | manipulating the genome of a living organism |
| recombinant gene | a gene that contains parts of different genes that aren’t found together in nature. Combine the yeast regulatory sequence with the spidroin coding sequence. |
| Genetically modified organism (GMO) | Organisms that have received recombinant genes |
| gene therapy | treatment that aims to cure, treat, prevent human disease by replacing defective genes with functional ones |
| vector | DNA molecule used to deliver a recombinant gene to host cell |
| beta-globin | part of hemoglobin, which carries oxygen in red blood cells. |
| hemoglobin | a protein found in red blood cells that carries oxygen throughout the body |
| mutation | are changes in DNA sequence, these differences can be detrimental, such as in sickled red blood cells. These in the coding sequence of a gene lead to differences in amino acid sequence. |
| point-mutation | substituting one nucleotide for another |
| frameshift mutation | change in the reading frame of a gene |
| rearranged DNA mutations | sections of DNA move |
| Missense mutation | change one nucleotide to another: different amino acid sequence- change in protein shape and function |
| silent mutation | change one nucleotide to another: no change in amino acid sequence |
| nonsense mutation | change one nucleotide; introduces early stop codon- protein too short and nonfunctional |
| inversion mutation | a group of DNA nucleotides are flipped to read in reverse order; different amino acids sequence- change in protein shape and function |
| translocation mutation | move segments of DNA from one chromosome to another; fusing portions of different genes together- signifiant change in protein shape and function |
| insertion mutation | insert one or more nucleotides; shifts reading frame of every codon after insertion- significantly modified sequence makes protein not functional |
| deletion mutation | delete one or more nucleotides; shifts reading frame of every codon after deletion- significantly modified sequence makes protein not functional |
| mutagen | any chemical or physical agent that can damage DNA by changing the nucleotide sequence. Many components of the environment are considered these. |
| gene editing | a way to change the sequence of a gene- gene therapy is a type of... |
| CRISPR | clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats- genome-editing tool. Is a relatively precise method of making changes to existing genes- still under development |
| somatic cells | nonreproductive cells of the body |
| germ cells | reproductive cells of the body |
| cell division | the process by which a parent cell divides into two daughter cells- allows cells to grow, repair, and replace dead or damaged cells |
| cell cycle | the sequential series of events that take place in a cell, causing it to divide into two daughter cells |
| interphase | growth and preparation before cell division, Contains G1, S, and G2 phases, involves growth and duplications of chromosomes |
| sister chromatids | exact copies of chromosomes) separate during mitosis |
| mitosis | Chromosomes line up, small fibers attach to centromeres on each sister chromatid, one of each sister chromatid ends up in each side of the cell. |
| cytokinesis | Enlarged cell splits into two cells, each has full complement of DNA, starts with one parent cell undergoing mitosis, ends with two daughter cells |
| G1 phase | cell grows, makes extra cytoplasm- first to occur in interphase |
| S phase | DNA replication occurs, chromosomes form identical sister chromatids- second to occur in interphase |
| G2 phase | cell prepares for division- last to occur in interphase |
| carcinogen | a substance capable of causing cancer in living tissue |
| cell cycle checkpoint | regulatory mechanisms that monitor and ensure the proper progression of a cell through the different phases of the cell cycle |
| apoptosis | the death of cells which occurs as a normal and controlled part of an organism's growth or development |
| tumor | swelling of a part of the body, generally without inflammation, caused by an abnormal growth of tissue, whether benign or malignant. |
| centromere | the region of a chromosome to which the microtubules of the spindle attach, during cell division |
| mitotic spindle | a crucial structure formed during cell division (mitosis) that separates duplicated chromosomes, ensuring each daughter cell receives a complete set of chromosomes |
| cancer | a disease caused by an uncontrolled division of abnormal cells in a part of the body. |
| sporadic | occurring at irregular intervals or only in a few places; scattered or isolated |
| proto-oncogene | Normally promote cell division and differentiation. Can be mutated to become permanently activated |
| oncogenes | when proto-oncogenes are mutated, genes that cause cancer |
| tumor suppressor gene | Normally pause cell division, repair DNA, or initiate cell death Can be mutated to become inactivated. For example, BRCA1 and BRCA2 |
| benign tumor | noncancerous tumor |
| malignant tumor | cancerous tumor with cells that can spread over the body |
| metastasis | the spread of cancer cells |
| chemotherapy | Uses toxic chemicals to kill rapidly dividing cells, Can affect cancer cells that are spread throughout the body, Side effects are severe |
| radiation treatment | Uses high-energy ionizing radiation to kill targeted cells, Kills cells by damaging the DNA in cells, Side effects are severe |
| targeted therapy | Kill cancer cells by exploiting weaknesses caused by oncogenes or mutated tumor suppressor genes, Normal cells are unaffected because their gene expression is normal. |
| immunotherapy | Cancer cells prevent the immune system from killing them, Immunotherapy re-enables the ability of immune cells to kill cancer cells. |
| prophase | Chromosomes begin to coil up, nuclear membrane begins to disappear, Formation of mitotic spindle begins |
| metaphase | chromosomes align in the middle of the cell |
| anaphase | Fibers called microtubules shorten, separating sister chromatids |
| telophase | daughter cell nuclei are formed |
Created by:
Ellah1123
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