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Bio204 Exam #2
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| The evolutionary history of a species or group of related species | Phylogeny |
| A discipline focused on classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary relationships | Systematics |
| The discipline around naming organisms | Taxonomy |
| A system of taxonomy created by Carolus Linnaeus that uses hierarchical classification and 2 part names for species | Binomial Nomenclature |
| The taxonomic groups from broad to narrow are... (8 of them) | Domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species (DKPCOFGS) |
| A group at any level of hierarchy is called a... | Taxon |
| Analogy | similarity of function and superficial resemblance of structures that have different origins |
| Homology | the similarity of body parts or genes between organisms due to shared ancestry |
| Systematists placed organisms into Linneus' hierarchy based on similarity of multiple morphological characters. This is called the ______ _______ method. | Bumps and spots |
| The evolutionary history of a group of organisms can be represented in a branching diagram called a _________ __________. | Phylogenetic tree |
| The order in which taxa appears at the branch tips is not significant. However, the _________ ________ signifies the order in which the lineages diverged from common ancestors | Branching Pattern |
| A ______ tree includes a branch to represent the most recent common ancestor of all taxa in the tree. | Rooted |
| A lineage that diverges from all other members of the group early in the history of the group is called a... | Basal taxon |
| Phylogenetic trees show patterns of descent, NOT... | Phenotypic similarity |
| In _______ organisms are grouped primarily by common ancestry | Cladistics |
| A group of species that includes an ancestral species and all its descendants | Clade |
| Only _________ groups, consisting of the ancestor and all of its descendants, are clades | Monophyletic |
| A group that consists of an ancestral species and some, but not all, of the descendants | Paraphyletic |
| A group that includes distantly related species but not their most recent common ancestor | Polyphyletic |
| A character that originated in an ancestor of the taxon | Shared ancestor |
| An evolutionary novelty unique to a particular clade | Shared derived |
| Whether a character is considered ancestral or derived is... | Relative |
| Identification of the clades in which shared derived characters first appears can be used to infer... | Evolutionary relationships |
| A species or group of species closely related to, but not part of the group of species being studied | Outgroup |
| Group of species being studied | Ingroup |
| In some trees, branch length reflects the number of... | Genetic changes |
| In some trees, branch length is proportional to... | Time |
| An approach used to estimate the absolute time of evolutionary change | Molecular clock |
| identifies the tree most likely to have produced a given set of DNA data based on probability rules about how DNA changes over time | Maximum likelihood |
| assumes that the most likely tree is the one that requires the fewest evolutionary events (appearances of shared derived characters) | Maximum Parsimony |
| What methods do systematists use to narrow possibilities when trying to find the best tree in a large set of data? | Maximum likelihood and maximum parsimony |
| The 3 domain system includes: | Bacteria- includes most of known prokaryotes Archaea- diverse prokaryotes that inhabit a wide variety of environments (often extremes) Eukarya- single-celled and multicellular organisms with true nuclei (eukaryotes) |
| Eukarya includes 3 kingdoms | Plantar, fungi, animalia |
| What is no longer a kingdom because some of its members are more closely related to plants, fungi, or animals than other protists? | Protista |
| Parsimonious trees based on different genes show different patterns. This may be a result from movement of genes between the... | Domains |
| The movement of genes from one genome to another | Horizontal gene transfer |
| How can horizontal gene transfer occur? | - by exchange of transposable elements and plasmids - viral infection - possibly fusion of organisms |
| Most prokaryotes are ____, but some species form ____ or colonies | Unicellular; strands |
| What are the 3 shapes that we identify bacteria with? | - Cocci (=Spherical) - Bacilli (=Rod shaped) - Spirals (= spiral or helical shapes) |
| What is the sticky layer of polysaccharide or protein surrounding the cell wall that is DENSE and WELL DEFINED | Capsule |
| What is the sticky layer of polysaccharide or protein surrounding the cell wall that is NOT WELL ORGANIZED | Slime layer |
| Slime Layer Function? | Helps bacteria adhere to surfaces and protect the bacteria from desiccation |
| Capsule Function? | Provides additional protection to the bacteria, including protection from the host immune system. |
| What are eukaryotic cell walls made out of? | Cellulose or chitin |
| A network of sugar polymers cross-linked by polypeptides | Peptidoglycan **Most bacterial cell walls contain |
| Scientists use the _____ ______ to classify bacteria by cell wall composition | Gram stain |
| Bacteria that have simpler walls with a large amount of peptidoglycan | Gram-positive |
| Bacteria that have less peptidoglycan and are more complex with an outer membrane that contains lipopolysaccharides | Gram-negative |
| The cell wall maintains shape, protects the cell, and prevents it from bursting in a _______ environment | Hypotonic |
| Most prokaryotes lose water and experience plasmolysis in ______ environments (they shrivel) | Hypertonic |
| Hairlike appendages that allow prokaryotes to stick to their substrate or other individuals in a colony | Fimbriae |
| Appendages that are longer than fimbriae and function to pull cells together enabling the exchange for DNA | Pili |
| The ability to move toward or away from a stimulus (about half of all prokaryotes exhibit this) | Taxis |
| What are the most common structures used by prokaryotes for movement? | Flagella- they may be scattered or concentrated at the ends of the cell |
| Because prokaryotes lack a nucleus, where does the chromosome reside? | Nucleoid- a region with no membrane |
| Smaller rings of independently replicating DNA that prokaryotes may have? | Plasmids |
| Obtain energy from light | Phototrophs |
| Obtain energy from chemicals | Chemotrophs |
| Require CO2 or related compounds as a carbon source | Autotrophs |
| Require an organic nutrient to make other organic compounds | Heterotrophs |
| Require O2 for cellular respiration | Obligate aerobes |
| Are poinsoned by O2 and live by fermentation or use substances other than O2 as the final electron acceptor in ETC for anaerobic respiration | Obligate anaerobes |
| Can use O2 if it is present or carry out fermentation or anaerobic respiration if not | Facultative anaerobes |
| How do prokaryotes reproduce? | Binary fission |
| Some bacteria form metabolically inactive _______ when water or nutrients are lacking. | Endospores- these help them withstand extreme conditions and remain viable for centuries |
| What 3 factors contribute to the high levels of genetic diversity observed in prokaryote populations? | 1- Rapid reproduction 2- Mutation 3- Genetic Recombination |
| The combining of DNA from two sources, contributes to prokaryote diversity | Genetic recombination |
| When prokaryotic cells incorporate foreign DNA taken up from their surroundings? | Transformation |
| When phages carry prokaryotic genes from one host cell to another? | Transduction |
| The process through which DNA is transferred between two prokaryotic cells | Conjugation |
| Archaea that live in extreme environments, uninhabitable for most organisms | Extremophiles |
| Archaea that either tolerate or require highly saline environments | Extreme halophiles |
| Archaea that have adaptations that make their DNA and proteins stable at high temperatures | Extreme thermophiles |
| Obligate anaerobes that produce methane as a by-product of their metabolism- found in diverse environments: under ice in Greenland, swamps, and guts of cattle/termites/other herbivores | Methanogens |
| Excavate, SAR, Archaeplastida, Unikonta | 4 major supergroups used in the classification of eukaryotes |
| Define cilia | Hair-like structures used by some protists for movement |
| Define flagella | Long, whip-like structures for movement |
| Pseudopodia | Extensions of the cytoplasm used for movement and feeding in amoeboid protists |
| Dead zone | an area in a body of water where oxygen levels are so low that most aquatic life cannot survive |
| Fungi | Eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms that include molds, yeasts, and mushrooms. |
| How do fungi obtain nutrients? | Through absorption after secreting enzymes |
| Where do fungi grow? | often in moist, dark conditions; and they play essential roles in decomposition and nutrient cycling |
| Mycelium | The vegetative body of a fungus, composed of a network of hyphae. |
| Hyphae | the individual thread-like filaments that make up the mycelium |
| Mycorrhiza | A fungus which grows in association with the roots of a plant in a symbiotic or mildly pathogenic relationship |
| Haustoris | a slender projection (from hyphae of a parasitic fungus) enabling the parasite to penetrate the tissues of its host and absorb nutrients. |
| Arbuscules | tree-like structures in fungi that exchange nutrients with plants |
| Chitin | The polysaccharide found in the cell walls of fungi (not cellulose like in plants) |
| Fungi reproduction | Fungi reproduce sexually and asexually through the production of spores. The sexual stages often involve the fusion of specialized reproductive structures. |
| Opisthokonts | Broad group of eukaryotes |
| Mucoromycetes | Includes common molds like Rhizopus (black bread mold). |
| Ascomycetes | Known as sac fungi, includes yeasts, morels, and truffles. Major fungal group associated with lichens |
| Basidiomycetes | Includes club fungi, mushrooms, and puffballs. Know their reproductive cycle. |
| Zoopagomycetes | Live as parasites or symbionts of animals or other fungi |
| Chytridiomycetes | Primitive fungi with flagellated spores, some of which are parasitic. Zoospores, Major pathogens of amphibians |
| Sporangium | The structure where spores are produced. |
| Lichen | A mutualistic association between a fungus and a photosynthetic partner (alga or cyanobacterium). |
| Spores | Reproductive cells in fungi (asexual and sexual) |
| Mycosis | refers to a fungal infection in humans, animals, or plants |
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egpecory
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