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Meghan Stewart
Physiology 221-08 Set 1 week 2 chapter 4 Biomolecules Spring 2025
| Organic Molecules | Molecules that contain C—C or C—H bonds, Often have functional groups (radicals [R]) attached to the carbon-containing core of the molecule, Functional groups confer unique chemical properties to the mole-cules on which they are attached |
| Free Radical | temporarily unattached, highly reactive, chemical group |
| Carbohydrates | Carbohydrates—organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (usual ratio 1:2:1); commonly called sugars and starches |
| Monosaccharides | simple sugars with short carbon chains; those with six carbons are hexoses (e.g., glucose), whereas those with five are pentoses (e.g., ribose, deoxyribose) |
| Disaccharides and polysaccharides | two (di-) or more (poly-) simple sugars that are bonded together through a dehydration synthesis (condensation) reaction |
| Lipids | Water-insoluble organic molecules that are critically important biological compounds. Major roles: 1. Energy source 2. Structural role 3. Integral parts of cell membranes |
| Lipids: Triglycerides or fats | 1. Most abundant lipids and most concentrated source of energy 2. Building blocks of triglycerides are glycerol (the same for each fat mole-cule) and fatty acids (different for each fat, determining its chemical nature) |
| Types of fatty acids | saturated fatty acid (all available bonds are filled) and unsaturated fatty acid (has one or more double bonds). (1) Monounsaturated—only one double bond (2) Polyunsaturated—more than one double bond |
| Condensation | Triglycerides are formed by dehydration synthesis (condensation) |
| Phospholipids | Lipid compounds similar to triglycerides. One end of the phospholipid is water soluble (hydrophilic); the other end is lipid soluble (hydrophobic). Phosphoinositides (PIs) are regulatory mol. Form double layers - bilayers that make up cell memb. |
| Steroids | 1. Main component is steroid nucleus 2. Involved in many structural and functional roles |
| Prostaglandins | 1. Commonly called tissue hormones; produced by cell membranes throughout the body 2. Effects are many and varied; however, they are released in response to a specific stimulus and are then inactivated |
| Proteins | Most abundant organic compounds. Chainlike polymers of amino acids held together by peptide bonds to form a polypeptide. |
| Amino acids | building blocks of proteins. Amino acids consist of a carbon atom, an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a functional group or radical (R) |
| Essential amino acids | eight amino acids that cannot be produced by the adult human body |
| Nonessential amino acids | 13 amino acids that can be produced from molecules available in the adult human body |
| Levels of protein structure | Protein molecules are highly organized and show a definite relationship between structure and function. Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary. |
| Levels of protein organization - Primary structure | refers to the number, kind, and sequence of amino acids that make up the polypeptide chain held together by peptide bonds |
| Levels of protein organization - Secondary structure | polypeptide is coiled or bent into helices (spirals) and pleated sheets stabilized by hydrogen bonds; may include recurring patterns of helices and/or sheets called motifs |
| Levels of protein organization - Tertiary structure | a structure further twisted & converted to a complex globular shape. helices & pleated sheets touch in many places & are “welded” by covalent disulfide bonds/hydrogen bonds/other attractive forces. May inc regions/domains that act as functional units |
| Levels of protein organization - Quaternary structure | highest level of organization occurring when protein contains more than one polypeptide chain |
| Importance of protein shape | shape of protein molecules determines their function |
| Protein shape Characteristics Part I | 1. Final functional shape of the protein molecule is called its native state 2. Structural proteins form the structures of the body 3. Functional proteins cause chemical changes in the molecules |
| Protein Shape Characteristics part II | 4. Denatured proteins have lost their shape and therefore their function 5. Proteins can be denatured by changes in pH, temperature, radiation, and other chemicals |
| Protein Shape Characteristics part III | 6. If the chemical environment is restored, proteins may be renatured and function normally 7. Proteins often have parts that move to perform their functions |
| DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) composition | Composed of deoxyribonucleotides—that is, structural units composed of the pentose sugar (deoxyribose), phosphate group, and nitrogenous base (cytosine, thymine, guanine, or adenine) |
| DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) | 2. DNA molecule consists of two long chains of deoxyribonucleotides coiled into a double-helix shape 3. Alternating deoxyribose and phosphate units form the backbone of the chains |
| DNA Nitrogenous base pairs | Base pairs hold the two chains of DNA molecule together by hydrogen bonding a. Adenine binds to thymine (two hydrogen bonds) b. Cytosine binds to guanine (three hydrogen bonds) |
| DNA and heredity | Specific sequence of more than 100 million base pairs constitutes one human DNA molecule; all DNA molecules in one individual are identical and different from those of all other individuals. DNA functions as the molecule of heredity |
| RNA (ribonucleic acid) | Composed of the pentose sugar (ribose), phosphate group, and a nitrog-enous base |
| RNA Nitrogenous base pairs | Nitrogenous bases for RNA are adenine, uracil, guanine, or cytosine (uracil replaces thymine) |
| RNA | Some RNA molecules are temporary copies of segments (genes) of the DNA code and are involved in synthesizing protein. Some RNA molecules are regulatory and act as enzymes (ribozymes) or silence gene expression (RNA interference) |
| ATP | Composed of Adenosine (a) Ribose—a pentose sugar (b) Adenine—a nitrogen-containing molecule and 3 phosphate subunits (a) High-energy bonds present between phosphate groups (b) Cleavage of high-energy bonds releases energy during catabolic reactions |
| How is ATP split | splits into adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and an inorganic phos-phate group by special enzymes |
| What happens if you run out of ATP | If ATP is depleted during prolonged exercise, creatine phosphate (CP) or ADP can be used for energy |
| NAD+ and FAD | Used as coenzymes to transfer energy from one chemical pathway to another |
| cAMP (cyclic AMP) | a. Made from ATP by removing two phosphate groups to form a monophosphate b. Used as an intracellular signal |
| ATP | Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)—two extra phosphate groups to a nucleotide |
| Names of combined molecules tell you what is in them | 1. Base word tells which component is dominant 2. Prefix is the component found in a lesser amount |
| Lipoproteins | lipid and protein groups combined into a single molecule |
| Glycoproteins | carbohydrate (glyco, “sweet”) and protein |
| Carbohydrate: Glucose | Simple sugar (hexose: C6H12O6) Fx: Stores Glucose Ex: Blood Glucose |
| Carbohydrate: Ribose | Simple sugar (pentose: C5H10O5) Fx:Plays role in expression of heredity info Ex: Component of RNA |
| Carbohydrate:Deoxyribose | Simple sugar (pentose: C5H10O4) Fx: Plays role in storage and transmission of hereditary information Ex:Component of DNA |
| Carbohydrate:Glycogen | Glucose Fx: Stores energy Ex: Liver Glycogen |
| Lipid: Triglycerides | Glycerol ⫹ 3 fatty acids Fx: stores energy Ex: Body fat |
| Lipid:Phospholipid | Glycerol ⫹ phosphate ⫹ 2 fatty acids Fx: Make up cell membranes Ex: Plasma membrane of cell |
| Lipid: Steroids | Steroid nucleus (4-carbon ring) Fx: Make up cell membranes/Hormone synthesis ex: Cholesterol, various steroid hormones - Estrogen |
| Lipid: Prostaglandins | 20-carbon unsaturated fatty acid containing 5-carbon ring Fx:Regulate hormone action; enhance immune system; affect inflammatory response Ex: Prostaglandin E, prostaglandin A |
| Protein: Functional protein | Amino acids Fx: Regulate chemical reactions Ex: Hemoglobin, antibodies, enzymes |
| Protein: Structural proteins | Amino acids Fx: Component of body support tissues Ex:Muscle filaments, tendons, ligaments |
| Nucleic Acids: DNA | Nucleotides (sugar, phosphate, base) Fx: Encodes hereditary information Ex: Chromatin, chromosomes |
| Nucleic acids: RNA | Nucleotides (sugar, phosphate, base) Fx: Helps decode hereditary information; acts as “RNA enzyme”; silencing of gene expression Ex: Transfer RNA (tRNA), messenger RNA (mRNA), double-strand RNA (dsRNA) |
| Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) | Phosphorylated nucleotide (adenine ⫹ ribose ⫹ 3 phosphates) Fx: Transfers energy from fuel molecules to working molecules Ex:ATP present in every cell of the body |
| Creatine phosphate (CP) | Amino acid derivative ⫹ phosphate Fx: Transfers energy from fuel to ATP Ex: CP present in muscle fiber as “backup” to ATP |
| Nicotinic adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) | Combination of 2 ribonucleotides Fx: Acts as coenzyme to transfer high-energy particles from one chemical process to another Ex: NAD⫹ present in every cell of the body |
| Glycoproteins | Large proteins with small carbohydrate groups attached Fx: Similar to functional proteins Ex:Some hormones, antibodies, enzymes, cell membrane components |
| Proteoglycans | Large polysaccharides with small polypeptide chains attached Fx: Lubrication; increase thickness of fluid Ex:Component of mucous fluid and many tissue fluids in the body |
| Lipoproteins | Protein complex containing lipid groups Fx: Transport lipids in the blood Ex: LDLs (low-density lipoproteins); HDLs (high-density lipoproteins) |
| Glycolipids | Lipid molecule with attached carbohydrate group Fx: Component of cell membranes Ex: Component of membranes of nerve cells |
| Ribonucleoprotein | Combination of RNA nucleotide and protein Fx: Enzyme-like actions such as splicing mRNA Ex: Small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs or “snurps”) that make up the spliceosome structure in a cell |
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meghans0931
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