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biology revision
tidbits taken from all over the ib hl bio syllabus
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Where does the electron transport chain take place? | Inter-membrane space of a mitochondria |
| Where does glycolysis take place? | Cytoplasm |
| Where does the krebs cycle take place? | Mitochondrial matrix |
| How many ATP does one NADH molecule create? | 3 ATP |
| How many ATP does one FADH molecule create? | 2 ATP |
| What does ATP synthase use during the ECT to create ATP from ADP? | Facilitated diffusion of hydrogen (chemiosmosis) from the inter-membrane space back into the mitochondrial matrix to convert ADP and organic phosphate into ATP. |
| What is the purpose of transferring electrons across the ECT? | The electrons are used to facilitate the pumping of hydrogen from NADH and FADH into the inter-membrane space, and are finally used to convert loose hydrogen and oxygen molecules into water |
| What is the process of creating ATP from ADP called in the ECT? | Oxidative Phosphorylation |
| Do carbohydrates or lipids have a higher energy yield per g? Why? | Lipids have nearly twice the energy yield (37 kj) per g as carbohydrates (17 kj) because lipids have a lower concentration of oxygen, which can't be used for energy release, as carbon and hydrogen, which can |
| Can lipids be used for anaerobic respiration? Why or why not? | No, because the breakdown of fatty acids is impossible without oxygen |
| Can carbohydrates be used for anaerobic respiration? Why or why not? | Yes, because the presence of glycolysis can create some ATP without oxygen |
| What are the net gains of glycolysis? | 2 ATP, 2 pyruvates, and 2 NADH |
| What are the products of the link reaction? | 2 Acetyl-CoA, 2 CO2, 2 NADH |
| What is the purpose of NADH? | To carry electrons to the electron transport chain |
| What is the starting reactant molecule of the krebs cycle? | 4C oxaloacetate |
| Where does the light-dependent part of photosynthesis take place? | Inisde the the thylakoid membrane, inside the chloroplast of a plant cell |
| What do animal cells use to split the cytoplasm during cytokinesis? | A contractile ring of actin and myosin that pinches the cell into two new daughter cells after creating a cleavage furrow |
| What do plant cells use to split the cytoplasm during cytokinesis? | A cell plate made of vesicles and guided by microtubules that attaches to the plasma membrane and divides the cell into two daughter cells between a middle lamella |
| How do yeast cells reproduce? | Yeast cells reproduce asexually through budding, in which a bud is formed as a small outgrowth containing one daughter nucleus and less cytoplasm that grows and reproduces in turn to create a chain of yeast cells. |
| What is oogensis? | The formation of egg cells in humans, which involves unequal cytokinesis. One larger ooctye is formed which takes most of the cytoplasm and will develop further, and one smaller polar body which will not develop further. |
| What is a motile species? | A species with a muscular and skeletal system adapted for locomotion (examples include humans + anything that moves freely) |
| What is a sessile species? | A species fixed in place that moves using ciliary action (expanding and retracting parts of their bodies) like trees and corals |
| What are muscle fibres made of? | Myofibrils |
| What are myofibrils made of? | Sarcomeres |
| What is the first step when sarcomeres contract? | A nerve impulse from a motor neuron triggers the release of calcium ions from the sacroplasmic reticulum |
| What is the second step when sarcomeres contract? | Calcium ions bind to toponin which changes its configuration and moves topomyosin, revealing the binding sites |
| What is the third step when sarcomeres contract? | ATP molecules bind to myosin heads, causing them to prepare for the next action by changing their angles. ATP has already been converted to ADP and inorganic phosphate as it waits |
| What is the fourth step when sarcomeres contract? | Energy from ATP hydrolysis powers the formation of the cross bridge, in which myosin heads bind to the actin binding site |
| What is the fifth step when sarcomeres contract? | Once attached, the myosin heads perform a 'power stroke' in which they pull the actin filament towards the centre of the sarcomere ('z' line towards 'm' line) |
| What is the sixth step when sarcomeres contract? | Myosin heads detach, reset, and reattach in a cyclic manner as long as ATP and calcium ions are available. This enables the sliding of filaments. |
| How do actin and myosin filaments facilitate muscle contraction? | The collective sliding of actin and myosin filaments shortern the sarcomere, resulting in muscle contraction. |
| What is actin? | The thinner filament in a sarcomere that is attached to the 'z' line. It has binding sites for myosin heads to attach to. |
| What is toponin? | The molecule on an actin filament that changes its configuration when it interacts with calcium ions, allowing topomyosin to move and reveal the actin binding sites. |
| What is topomyosin? | The long molecules (?) on actin that cover the binding sites when muscular movement is halted and move to reveal then when toponin changes its configuration |
| What is myosin? | The thicker filament in a saromere that is attached to the 'm' or middle line. It has myosin heads that use ATP to attach to binding sites along actin filaments and pull them to have the filaments slide over each other and contract muscle fibres |
| What is titin? | The largest known protein. Titin is used to give structure to sarcomeres and works like an elastic string, recoiling after being overstretched |
| What are antagonistic muscles? | Opposite muscle groups. One relaxes for the other to contract and vice versa (such as the triceps and biceps) |
| How is DNA usually stored in a eukaryotic cell? | A loose, noodle-like form contained in the nucleus. |
| How is DNA stored before reproduction (mitosis or meiosis) | DNA is wound around histones, which are in turn wound into chromatid fibres and wound into chromosones |
| What is Cohesin? (not cohesion) | Cohesin is the ring like protein that binds sister chromatids together once a single chromosone replicates right before cell division. They hold the sister chromatids together until anaphase when they are pulled apart for cell division. |
| What are the two kinds of skeletons? | Internal endoskeletons in mammals and external exoskeletons in arthropods |
| What are synovial joints? | Synovial joints are 'ball and socket' joints that move in diverse ways, such as the shoulder and hip joints. |
| What is the difference between tendons and ligaments? | Tendons connect muscle and bone (such as in the Achilles tendon) and ligaments connect bone and bone. |
| What is a hinge joint? | Hinge joints are joints that only move in two ways, such as the elbow and knee joints |
| What is the structure of a synovial joint? | A synovial joint contains synovial fluid, produced by the synovial membrane, that lubricates the joint and provides cushioning. |
| How do muscles generate force for movement? | By contracting and pulling on the tendons which attach them to bones |
| What is range of movement? | Range of movement (ROM) refers to the range of motion a joint is capable of, and is measured in planes. Synovial joints have 3 motors, hinge joints have 1. |
| What are four purposes for locomotion? | -Foraging for food -Escaping from danger -Migrating to better habitats -Seeking out a suitable mate |
| What are four possible adaptations aquatic mammals could have for locomotion in the water? | -Streamlined bodies to minimize drag -Limb adaptations like flippers for maneuvering -Tail adaptations like the flat, horizontal tail fluke to propel -Airway adaptations specialized for rapid, efficient breathing |
| What is system integration? | System integration is the coordination of different components of a living system to achieve an overall function, and is regulated by the nervous and endocrine systems. |
| What are features of hormone signals? | Hormone signals are chemical and travel through the blood stream to all parts of the body, targeting cells in any tissue. They work slower but last longer. |
| What are hormones responsible for? | Growth, development, reproduction, metabolism, mood, solute concentrations |
| What are features of nervous signals? | Nervous signals are electrical and travel through relay neurons to specific neurons and effectors, so impact muscles and glands. They are rapid with a short duration. |
| What are nervous signals responsible for? | Muscle contraction for locomotion and heart rate, the activation of glands for sweating and the release of epinephrane |
| What is the CNS made of? | The brain and spinal cord |
| What is the role of sensory neurons? | Sensory neurons transmit signals from receptor cells in sensory organs like the skin and eyes to the CNS. The spinal cord can process reflex actions and the brain can make decisions. They are the link between sensory inputs and the CNS. |
| What is the structure of a nerve? | Nerves are bundles of nerve fibres that can include sensory and motor neurons. Nerve fibres's axons may be covered in a myelin sheath to increase signal transmissions |
| Where is melatonin produced? | Pineal gland |
| What is the role of melatonin? | To regulate the body's circadian rhythm and sleep patterns |
| What do mitosis and meiosis have in common? (procedures) | Condensation of DNA, moving of chromosomes |
| What are the adaptations of mammalian lungs? (Please take my lungs) | -Permeability -Thin tissue layers -Moisture -Large surface area |
| Adaptations of an alveolus | -Type 1 and 2 pneumocytes -Diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide from continuous blood flow -Surrounded by capillaries |
| What is the difference between type 1 and 2 pneumocytes? | -Type 1 pneumocytes are thin, cannot divide and produce surfecant to prevent alveolus collapse -Type 2 pneumocytes are on the outer layer, can divide into type 1 or 2 pneumocytes, and are larger |
| What are the parts of the leaf? | Upper epidermis, palisade mesophyll, xylem, phloem, spongy mesophyll, lower epidermis |
| What does the upper epidermis in a leaf do? | Has a waxy cuticle to prevent water loss, absorbs light |
| What does the palisade mesophyll in a leaf do? | Has lots of chloroplasts to maximize light absorption for photosynthesis |
| What does the xylem in a leaf do? | Transports water in the plant |
| What does the phloem in a leaf do? | Transports sugars in the plant |
| What does the spongy mesohpyll in a leaf do? | Lots of air pockets between loosely packed cells optimizes gas exchanges |
| What does the lower epidermis in a leaf do? | Has stomata and guard cells for the exchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water vapor. |
| How does transpiration occur? | When stomata in leaves open for carbon dioxide to enter, some water vapor escapes |
| What is a meristem in a plant? | Specialized region of cell growth |
Created by:
daydreaming-ghost
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