Help
Options
Didn't know it?
click below
click below
Knew it?
click below
click below
Don't Know
Remaining cards (0)
Know
retry
shuffle
restart
0:00
Embed Code - If you would like this activity on your web page, copy the script below and paste it into your web page.
Normal Size Small Size show me how
Normal Size Small Size show me how
CELL 120 Unit 4
Varus
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Goals of viruses | They want to get inside because they can't replicate by themselves. Invade host, hijack machinery to make more of itself. Lot's of variety, but simple. |
| Structure of viruses | Protein coating with nucleic acid inside. Not living, not a chemical. Borrowed life. NOT CELLS. Capsid, genome, sometimes an envelope. |
| How are viruses classified? | By their genome. Single or double stranded DNA or RNA. |
| Viral genome | Double/single stranded DNA/RNA, strand or circular. 3-2,00 genes. |
| Capsid | Protein shell made from capsomere subunits. Helical/icosahedral structures. |
| Viral envelope | Made of viral glycoproteins that bind to specific receptors on host cell. Derived from the host cell. Protects it. Spikes on outside are proteins targeting other cells with that protein (lungs). |
| Bacteriophage | Infect bacteria by injecting nucleic acid inside. |
| Host range | Limited # of host species a virus can infect. Like only humans, only digestive cells, etc. Can mutate so that it can infect both pigs and humans for example. |
| How viruses replicate | When virus enters host cell, the lysosome breaks it down, uncoating it and exposing to nucleic acid which invades the ribosomes to make more viral DNA and capsids which then self assemble. |
| Lytic cycle | Attaches, injects DNA, cell makes more viral genomes and protein, self assemble, and release, causing the death of the host cell. |
| Virulent phage | When phage only reproduces with the lytic cycle. |
| Lysogenic cyce | Viral DNA incooperated into the host genome. Does not result in destroying the host. The cell duplicates with the corrupted DNA, turning it into a PROPHAGE. |
| Temperate phage | Uses both the lytic and lysogenic cycles. |
| Lambda | Phage used frequently in studies for the lysogenic cycle. |
| Bacterial defenses against phages | Surface proteins that can't be recognized by phages, restriction enzymes, and CRISPR-Cas |
| Restriction Enzymes | Identify foreign DNA in bacteria, cut it up. The bacterial DNA is protected by methylation. |
| What is CRISPR-Cas? | Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats. Each spacer sequence between repeats correspond to DNA from a phage that previously injected DNA in the cell. Cas: nuclease proteins interact with the CRISPR region. (CRISPR Associated Proteins) |
| How is CRISPR-Cas a bacterial defense? | Any bacteria with this system that survives the virus can integrate the phage DNA into spacers. Further attempts of the virus to invade are stopped by transcription of the CRISPR region. |
| How does CRISPR-Cas work when a virus invades? | Transcribed CRISPR region makes mRNA's to bind to Cas, which target the viral DNA and cut it up. |
| What does the relationship between bacteria and viruses lead to? | Constant evolution and adaption. |
| Retrovirus | A proviral RNA strand that becomes double stranded and integrates into the double stranded DNA of the host. Like HIV virus becoming AIDS. Uses reverse transcription. |
| How viruses damage | Affect humans, plants, and animals. Damage/kill cells by releasing hydrolytic enzymes from the lysosomes or cause cells to produce toxins/have toxic components. |
| Prevention/treatment of viral infections | Vaccines: stimulate immune system to mount defenses with an inentuated pathogen that can't infect. Antiviral drugs: treat, not cure by inhibiting synthesis of viral DNA. |
| Emerging viral diseases | Suddenly become apparent. Like Ebola, zika, hemorrhagic Feaver |
| Epidemic | Outbreak of a virus in a region. Caused by: mutations in viruses, more connected world, viruses in animals hopping to humans. |
| The flu | Animal to human. H5N1- deadly, spreads slow. H1N1- rarely deadly, spreads fast. Swine flu: combo of pig, bird, and human strains. 9 segments of RNA in the genome that mutate a lot. |
| Prions | Infectious proteins. Associated with neurodegenerative diseases (mad cow disease). Improperly folded proteins, taken in as food. Somehow convert normal proteins into other misfolded ones. |
| DNA Technology | Ways to sequence and manipulate DNA. |
| DNA Hybridization | Technology based on pre-existing biological process of how DNA strands complement each other. |
| Genetic engineering | Direct manipulation of genes for practical purposes |
| DNA Sequencing | Ordering the base pairs in a genome. Counting it pair by pair is called DIDOXY CHAIN TERMINATION. Took 20 yrs for 1st human. Next generation faster, 3rd generation: Nanopores that detect the positive/negative charge of ATCG |
| DNA Cloning | Clone to study genes. Produce multiple copies of a single gene, then insert gene of intent into the plasmid to make a cloning vector. Plasmid=circular DNA of some bacteria. Insert gene to be studied, combining DNA. (Recombinant DNA) |
| Why use a bacterial plasmid for DNA cloning? | -Easily obtained -Easily manipulated -Easy to insert into bacteria to observe effects -Multiplies quickly |
| Restriction enzymes | Go along chopping at specific sequences. Cuts in a staggered way at restriction sites to make STICKY ENDS that will then w/ complementary sticky ends of other fragments. (Sealed w/ ligase). Allows to join 2 DNA fragments from different sources. |
| DNA Amplification | Gel electrophoresis controls density of gel to show large vs small things to see how much a gene is expressed. Also use PCR to amplify (see next card). |
| PCR Polymerase chain reaction | Makes copies of target segment by using corresponding primers. 1. Heat/Denature (use Taq polymerase, synthesizes at hot temps. Recruited by primers). 2. Cool/anneal 3. Extension |
| RT-PCR Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase chain reaction | Compares amounts of mRNA in multiple samples at the same time. mRNA synthesizes complementary DNA (cDNA), the mRNA |
| What is a use of RT PCR | Because of the restriction sites, making cDNA this way is an easy way to make DNA to put into plasmids for study. This can even be done with 40,000 year old mammoth, fingerprints, single embryonic cells, and detect viruses. |
| Why do biologists use these technologies? | By studying when and where genes are expressed (RNA) it gives clues about gene function. |
| Techniques to analyze gene expression | RNA seq, Quantitative RT-PCR, Nitro mutagenesis, reverse+forward engineering, CRISPR-Cas 9, Genome Wide Association study, Single nucleotide polymorphism. |
| RNA Seq | Don't need to know genomic sequence, measures wide range, still need to confirm with RT PCR. Use cDNA samples from different tissues/embryonic stages to determine gene expression. RNA cut, then connected with cDNA. |
| Quantitative RT PCR | Dye fluorescent when bound to double strand PCR product. Shows which tissue produces mRNA, and quantitative data is given. |
| Basics of determining gene function | Disable genetic code, change base pairs, or overexpress a gene to see what it does. |
| Invitro Mutagenasis | Specific mutation introduced to alter or destroy it's function. |
| Reverse and forward eignineering | Reverse: manipulate 1 gene and see the changes. Done with CRISPR Forward: Randomly mutate a bunch and see which genes contribute to a specific phenotype. (One is about the gene, the other is the trait). |
| Genome Wide Association Study (GWAS) | Looks for differences in genetic code between people who do/don't have a disease. Not conclusive, but can use for pre-disposition. |
| Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) | Any part of the gene that is different from everyone else. Normally people have an A here, but you have a G. These SNP's can be markers for disease alleles. |
| Stem Cells | Unspecified, reproduce indefinitely. Become lots of different cells given certain conditions. |
| Reproductive Cloning of mamals | Program animal, insert and birthed. These don't live as long as normal mammals cuz incomplete coding. Even Carbon Copy, the same genetic code, results in different personality and looks depending on WHAT is expressed. |
| Epigenetic differences between O.G. and cloned mammals | Cloned don't develop normally, exhibit defects, acetylation and methylation are different, changing what is/isn't expressed. |
| Embryonic an adult stem cells | Embryonic can become any cell, adult can only become certain cells to replace as needed. |
| Induced pluripotent stem cells | iPS Treat cells to make them like stem cells. Use Retrovirus to induce extra copies of 4 stem master regulatory genes to produce these. |
| Biotechnology | Manipulate organisms/components to make useful products. Applied in medicine, forensic evidence, genetic profiles, environmental cleanup and agriculture. |
| Medical applications of biotechnology | See which mutations play a role in disease, diagnose with PCR to detect recessive asymptomatic harmful alleles to prevent disease, gene therapy, learn about health risks, personalized treatment. |
| Pharmacogenetics | Personalized medicine using genetic profiles to inform of risks and benefits of a particular medicine. The future of pharmacogenetics implies that every human will have their genome sequenced. |
| Gene therapy | Introduce genes for therapeutic purposes. Useful for a single defective gene. Skill risky (like in 2000 in France when this triggered leukemia in children). |
| Imatinib | molecule that inhibits overexpression of leukemia-causing-tyrosine-kinase. Can only be used for cancers with a well understood molecular basis. |
| Cell cultures | Engineered to secrete desired proteins, like insulin or HGH. |
| "Pharm" animals | transfer gene from one organism to another, creating a TRANSGENE. Transgenic animals express the introduced gene, they are produced in factories and used for medical purposes (like growing more human like hearts in pigs for transplants). |
| Forensic Evidence applications of biotechnology | Everyone has a unique genetic makeup and markers. Obtained with any tissue or fluids. These markers are called short tandem repeats (STRs), which are the # of repeats in DNA sequences. |
| Environmental cleanup applications of biotechnology | modify the metabolism of microorganisms to consume toxic compounds, useful for water treatment. |
| Agricultural applications of biotechnology | Produce transgenic animals, selective breeding, GMO to pest resistance+raise nutritional value, up crop yield. There are concerns about: recombinant DNA-->pathogens, GMOs transferring to wild crops, up allergies. |
| Genomics | Study of whole sets of genes and their interactions |
| Bioinformatics | computers store and analyze biological data |
| Human genome project | 1990-2006 counted pair by pair in fragments. Sequence entire genome. It established a data base and refined analytical software. |
| Reference genome | General population has these bases. Any others are variants. |
| Whole genome shotgun sequencing | Make fragments that can be analyzed that overlap so you can but the full continuous line together after the sequencing. |
| Metagenomics | Group of species in an environmental sample, like different lakes in the Uinta's which have lilies vs. Are clear. |
| Sources for genomic data | National center for biotechnology information. 214 million fragments of DNA. BLAST: search tool in NCBI to compare a DNA sequence with any from the NCBI bank. ENCODE: what genes are coding and which are not. Database that helps understand gene function. |
| Protenomics | Study large sets of proteins and their properties. |
| Proteome | Entire set of proteins expressed by a cell/group of cells |
| Systems Biology | Functional integration of genes+proteins in biological systems |
| TCGA The cancer genome atlas | Identifies which gene variants drive cancer. Personalized medicine to target the weaknesses of the cancer. |
| How to see what is being over/under expressed | DNA Microarrays or RNA Sequencing |
| Differences in genomes in species | # of genes, density, size. Simpler organisms pack more genes in (more genes per mega base). Bigger genome size means less genes per MB, so there are many non coding areas. |
| Evolution of genes | Crossing over, transposition (crossing over of non-sister chromatids), and duplication (when DNA replicated, part of the template is skipped or replicated twice) |
| What proves/supports the evolution of genes? | Goblin genes. Once common gene ancestor that duplicated and diverged, eventually differences in the goblin family appeared because of mutations. |
| Charles Darwin | The origin of species book-->scientific revolution. Shows shared characteristics of species and the unity of life. Random mutations persist if beneficial in environment. |
| Evolution | Species get differences in characteristics. "Descent with modification." Life evolves over time. |
| Natural selection | The environment picks which traits get passed on. Because the environment constantly changes, so does the selection. We adapt. |
| Adaptations | Enhance organisms' ability to survive in their environments. |
| Artificial Selection | Humans use selective breeding to pick the desired traits. |
| Key features of natural selection | -Certain traits, more survive, so reproduce -Natural selection ups frequency of adaptations -Individuals don't evolve, population does -Natural selection only up/down traits -Environments vary |
| Antibiotics | Penicillin in 1943, in 1945 bacteria already developed a resistance. Same with methicillin in 1959, in 1961 resistance developed. |
| What is cancer? | Cells gone rouge (genetic, mostly environmental), mortality when it spreads to other parts of the body and inhibits organ function. |
| Types of cancer | Carcinoma: epithelial cells Sarcoma: bone, soft, connective tissue Leukemia: WBC in bone barrow Lymphoma: WBC in lymph Melanoma: skin Mutiple myeloma: plasma cells-bone marrow Brain+spinal: CNS tumor Other: germ cell, neuroendocrine,carcinoid tumor |
| History of cancer | Found in mummified Egyptians in 3000bc and recorded in papyrus. 400bc Hippocrates used the word carcinas-crab. 150AD Galen used word oncos, Greek word for swelling. |
| Genetic abnormalities causing cancer | Point mutations, chromosomal instability. Chromothripsis where chromosome shatters and is placed back together haphazardly. Epigenetic euchromatin/heterochromatin hiding suppressor genes so they can't be expressed. |
| External contributors to cancer | x-ray, uv radiation, tobacco smoke, asbestos, viral infections, diet high in red meat, alcohol consumption, organic solvents, pesticides. |
| The Hallmarks of cancer | 1. Sustaining proliferative signaling (reproducing) 2. Evading growth suppressors 3. Activating invasion+metasis (spreading) 4. Inducing angiogenesis (make new blood vessels) 5. Resisting cell death |
| Stages of cancer | 0. Cell with mutation- abnormal 1. Hyperplasia- single tumor, smaller 2. Dysplasia- larger, some spread to auxiliary lymph nodes 3. In situ cancer- extensive spread to auxiliary lymph nodes 4. Invasive cancer- spread to other parts of body |
| How does cancer cause mortality | Inhibiting functions of organs, imbalance in homeostatic pathways. |
| The war on cancer and moonshot initiative | Increased funding, excellent care (NCI), more survivors, |
Created by:
lilelise
Popular Biology sets