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a&p chap 11 blood
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Blood is confined within | the heart and blood vessels |
| Functions of blood | Carry substances throughout the bodyExamples: oxygen and wastesRegulate pH of body tissuesPrevent excessive blood loss due to hemorrhageFight infections |
| General Characteristics of Blood | Blood is a fluid connective tissueIt is heavier and more viscous then waterBlood pH ranges between 7.35 and 7.45Male blood volume: 5-6LFemale blood volume: 4-5LBlood is ~8% of body weight |
| 55% of blood volume consists of | plasmaLiquid matrix of blood |
| 45% of blood volume consists of | formed elementsMost are red blood cells1% are white blood cells and platelets |
| Red Blood Cells | Also called erythrocytesMain function is to transport oxygen and carbon dioxideMature RBCs lack a nucleus giving them a biconcave shape, maximizing surface are for gas diffusion |
| Hemoglobin | Red pigment of RBC’sBinds oxygen (and to a small degree carbon dioxide) |
| Oxygen-carrying hemoglobin is called | oxyhemoglobin (bright red color) |
| Oxygen-deficient hemoglobin is called | deoxyhemoglobin (dark red color) |
| Hemoglobin is made of two components | Heme: iron containing pigmentGlobin: protein |
| Concentration of RBCs | Most abundant formed element |
| Red blood cell count: clinical test to determine RBC number in a mm3 of blood | Adult males: 4.5-6.2 million per mm3Adult females: 4.2-5.4 million per mm3 |
| Production | Prior to birth, RBCs are produced by liver and spleenAfter birth, RBCs are produced by red bone marrowIn infants, red bone marrow is in all bonesIn adults, red bone marrow is in skull bones, ribs, sternum, vertebrae, pelvic bones |
| Iron | is required for hemoglobin production |
| Folic acid and Vitamin B12 | are needed for DNA synthesis during RBC formationVitamin B12 absorption from diet requires intrinsic factor secreted by the stomach lining |
| All RBCs develop from | hemocytoblasts in red bone marrow |
| Life span and production | Live ~120 days~2 billion are destroyed and produced per secondWorn out RBCs are removed by phagocytes in liver and spleen |
| Break down of heme | Breaks down into:Iron (which is recycled to form more hemoglobin)Bilirubin (which is secreted by liver into bile, which enters the small intestine and is excreted with feces) |
| White Blood Cells | Also called leukocytesFormed from hemocytoblasts in bone marrowCells retain their nuclei~4,500 to 10,000 per mm3 of bloodWBC count increases whenever the cells encounter disease causing organisms or chemicals |
| Function of White Blood Cells | Provide defense against disease organisms promote or decrease inflammatory responses |
| (White blood cells) Cells perform their functions within tissues | Cells can migrate from blood into tissueCells then follow a chemical trail to the site of damage |
| Types of leukocytes | Grouped into two broad categoriesGranulocytes: possess cytoplasmic granulesNeutrophils, eosinophils, basophilsAgranulocytes: lack cytoplasmic granulesLymphocytes, monocytes |
| Neutrophils | 60-70% of the total WBCs (most abundant WBC)Nucleus with 2-5 lobes and lavender-staining granulesFirst WBCs to respond to tissue damagePerform phagocytosis and release the enzyme lysozymeNumber increases with acute infections |
| Eosinophils | ~2-4% of the total WBCsBilobed nucleus with red-staining granulesFunctionsNeutralize histamine released during allergic reactionsDestroy parasitic wormsNumber increases during allergic reactions and parasitic worm infections |
| Basophils | ~0.5-1% of total WBCsU-shaped nucleus and blue-staining granules that contain histamine (dilates blood vessel’s to increase blood flow) and heparin (anticoagulant)Those that move into tissues are called mast cells |
| Functions of Basophils | To assist repair of tissue damage |
| Lymphocytes | ~20-25% of total WBCs (second most abundant WBC)Smallest WBCs with a spherical nucleus and no granules |
| T lymphocytes | Attack and destroy pathogens |
| B lymphocytes | Produce antibodies that attack bacteria and bacterial toxins |
| Monocytes | ~3-8% of the total WBCsLargest WBCs with U- or kidney-shaped nucleus and no granulesFunctionPhagocytosis of bacteria and cellular debrisOnce in tissues, they are called macrophages |
| Platelets | Also called thrombocytesCytoplasmic fragments of megakaryocytes that develop from hemocytoblasts Seen in background of blood smear~150,000 to 400,000 per mm3 of blood |
| Functions of Platelets | Plug breaks in blood vessels, begin the clotting process |
| Plasma | Straw-colored fluid portion of blood90% water containing dissolved solutes and formed elementsContains a variety of solutes that are kept in a state of dynamic balance |
| Plasma proteins | Most abundant solutesMost are produced by the liverThree types of plasma proteinsAlbuminsGlobulinsFibrinogen |
| Albumins | Buffers to maintain pH of blood |
| Albumins maintain osmotic pressure of blood | Osmotic pressure determines water balance between blood and cells. Water flows toward higher osmotic pressure. More albumin = More osmotic pressure |
| If osmotic pressure in blood decreases | Water moves into tissue causing edema (swelling) in tissue, Blood volume decreases |
| If osmotic pressure in blood increases | Water moves out of the tissue and into blood causing an increase in blood volume |
| Globulins | Alpha and beta globulins carry lipids and fat soluble vitamins in bloodGamma globulins are antibodies involved in immunity |
| Fibrinogen | Vital role in blood-clotting processConverted into insoluble fibrin to form blood clots |
| Electrolytes | Ions absorbed from intestine or released from cellsMost common are Na+, K+, Ca++, Cl-, HCO3-, PO4—Help maintain osmotic pressure and plasma pH |
| Hemostasis | Hemostasis is the stoppage of bleedingInvolves three processesVascular spasmPlatelet plug formationBlood clot formation |
| Vascular spasm | Constriction of the damaged vesselRestricts blood loss and lasts several minutesSerotonin released from platelets continues contraction of vessel smooth muscle |
| Platelet plug formation | Platelets are attracted to damage site and adhere to exposed connective tissuePlatelets also adhere to each otherResults is a cluster of platelets that plugs the break |
| Coagulation | Formation of a blood clotcomplex process involving many steps and the formation of protein fibers (fibrin) used to weave into clot and strengthen itClot formation completes within 3-6 minutesClots are restricted to damage site |
| Procoagulants | promote clotting |
| Anticoagulants | inhibit clotting, normally predominate |
| Key steps of clotting process | Tissue damage, blood vessel spasm, Platelet plug formation, clotting mechanism, prothrombin activator, thrombin, fibrinogen, fibrin, blood clot formation |
| After clot formation, fibrins contract and pull damaged tissues closer together | Fibroblasts migrate into clot and repair the damage |
| Human Blood Types | Blood types (ABO plus Rh) are determined by specific antigens on RBC plasma membranes |
| Antigens | are characteristic proteins found on RBC membrane |
| Antibodies | in plasma will recognize antigens not found normally on the RBCs of that person |
| Agglutination | occurs when the antibodies bind foreign antigens which causes the RBC's to clump together |
| ABO blood group | Type depends on the presence of antigen A and antigen B on RBCsFour types of blood are possibleA, B, AB, and OBlood type will possess antibodies against the antigens NOT present on the RBCs |
| Type A | Red blood cells with type A surface antigens and plasma with anti-B antibodies |
| Type B | Red blood cells with type B surface antigens and plasma with anti-A antibodies |
| Type AB | Red blood cells with both type A and type B surface antigens, and neither anti-A nor anti-B plasma antibodies |
| Type O | Red blood cells with neither type A nor type B durface antigens, but both anti-A and anti-B plasma antibodies |
| Typing blood involves application of anti-A and anti-B antibodies to drops of blood | If agglutination occurs after an antibody is added, the antigen IS present on the RBC |
| Transfusion | donation of whole blood to an individual Blood is usually of same typeCare must be taken to ensure blood is compatible with recipient bloodIncompatible blood can result in widespread agglutination and fatality |
| Type AB+ blood is considered to be a universal recipient | It possesses no antibodies so it will not react with any donated RBCs |
| Type O- is considered to be a universal donor | It possesses both antibodies and will react with all donated RBCs except those of another type O |
| Rh blood type | Rh (D) antigen, first discovered in the Rhesus monkeyIf the antigen is present then type is Rh+ |
| Rh- persons do not normally have the anti-Rh antibody | Formed only after exposure to Rh+ RBCsFirst exposure builds the antibodiesSubsequent exposures will always result in agglutination |
| Erythroblastosis fetalis | Disorder in newborn infants resulting from destruction of fetal RBCs by maternal antibodies |
| An Rh- woman is pregnant with first Rh+ fetus | Fetal RBCs enter the mother’s blood streamMother begins to build anti-Rh antibodiesNo problem with first pregnancy but subsequent fetuses will be attacked by mother’s antibodies. |
| If mother becomes pregnant with a second Rh+ fetus | mother’s anti-Rh antibodies pass into the fetus’ blood stream and cause agglutination of fetal RBCs, |
| Anemia | General term meaning decreased oxygen-carrying capacity of bloodMost common blood disorderCaused by decrease in RBC count or insufficient hemoglobin |
| Nutritional anemia | insufficient iron and vitamin B12 in diet |
| Hemorrhagic anemia | excessive loss of RBCs through bleeding |
| Pernicious anemia | due to deficiency of intrinsic factor in stomach that is needed for absorption of B12 in the small intestine |
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