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Entomology Test Info
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Insect Muscle Attachments | Muscles attach to inner surface of exoskeleton at muscle attachments sites of apodemes and apophyses |
| Resilin | Provides elasticity to muscles |
| Hydrostatic Skeleton | Formed by "turgor" muscles that contract against hemocoel fluid for strengthen muscle foundation |
| Insect Larval MovementsTerrestial,Soft-Bodies Insect Larvae | With hydrostatic skeleton, move by crawling; 1. muscle contraction 2. extension 3. relaxation |
| Insect Larval MovementsLegless Insect Larvae | Move using waves of contractions and relaxations along with adhesive hooks and tubercles (ex: Dipterans) |
| Insect Larval MovementsAquatic,Soft-Bodied Insect Larvae | Have sinuous swimming motion with anterior to posterior undulating motions (Ex: Midges) |
| Insect Larval MovementsLarvae with Thoracic Legs and Abdominal Prolegs | Develop posterior to anterior turgor muscle contraction by 1. inflation 2. deflation 3. forward movement of prolegs (Ex: caterpillars) |
| Adult Insect Movement | Insects with hard exoskeletons can contract and relax muscles attached to cuticle using tripod movement ( moving 3 legs at a time);retraction-rearwards , protraction - forwards |
| Advantages of Insect Flight | 1. Greater Mobility 2. Food & Mate Location3. Improve Dispersal4. Exploit New Locations |
| Difference between Adult Insect and Nymph | Adults have fully developed, functional flying wings while nymphs have wingbuds |
| Wing Location | Dorsolaterally located on thorax, forewings on mesothorax and hind wings on metathorax |
| Flight Mechanism for Insect Wings | 1. Thorax is rigidly, fused box with sides(pleura)& base(sternum)2. Wings connected where rigid tergum is attached to pleura by flexible membranes3. Membranous attachment and wing hinges are composed of resilin |
| Flight Muscle Categories | 1. Direct-connected to wings ex: Dipterans2. Indirect-no muscle-wing connection but muscle action deforms thorax to move wing ex: hymenopterans |
| Primitive Insect Wings | Wings were controlled independently with small variation in timing and rate allowing alteration inflight direction;however variation impedes controlled flight-locking mechanisms required |
| Synchronous Muscles | Slow wing beat frequencies with one muscle contraction for each nerve impulse ex: odonata,lepidoptera |
| Asynchronous Muscles | Faster wing beat frequencies, multiple muscle contractions with one nerve impulse;two stable wing positions-fully up or fully down;have an unstable "click" point that induces oscillating muscles that contract faster ex: hymenoptera,diptera |
| Basic Insect Nerve Cell Components | 1.Neuron 2.Dendrite 3.Axon 4.Synapse |
| Types of Insect Neurons | 1. Sensory2. Interneurons3. Motor Neurons4. Neuroendocrine Cells |
| Sensory Neurons | receive stimuli from environment and transmits them to CNS(Central Nervous System) |
| Interneurons | Receive information from CNS(central nervous system) and transmits it to other neurons |
| Motor Neurons | Receive information from interneuron and transmit it to muscles |
| Neuroendocrine Cells | Hormone Production;cell bodies of interneurons and moto neurons are aggregated with fibers interconnecting all types of nerve cells to form nerve centers or ganglia |
| Insect Central Nervous System | Principle Division of Nervous Systems which consists of ganglia joined by longitudinal nerve cords(connectives)` |
| Ganglionic Centers | Two ganglia of each thoracic and abdominal segment are fused to a single structure and ganglia of all head segments form two ganglionic centers;1. Brain2. Subesophageal Ganglion |
| Components of Insect Brain | Dorsal ganglionic center of head is composed of 3 pair of fused ganglia:1. Protocerebrum -eyes 2. Deutocerebrum-antennae 3. Tritocerebrum-body |
| Symphathetic Nervous System(SNS) | Nerves and ganglia that innervate the anterior and posterior gut which includes endocrine glands,reproductive and tracheal; importsnt for molting process |
| Peripheral Nervous System(PNS) | Consists of all motor neuron axons that radiate to the muscles from the ganglia of CNS and SNS plus the sensory neurons of the cuticular sensory structures;receives 1.Mechanical stimuli 2. Chemical stimuli 3. Thermal stimuli 4. Visual stimuli |
| Nervous & Endocrine System Interaction | All motor,sensory and physiological processes of the nervous system are controlled in conjunction with hormones produced by endocrine structures(neuronal,neuroglandular or glandular centers) |
| PNS | Responsible for 1.Sensory Cues 2. Movement 3. Translating Information |
| Hormone | Chemical messenger that influence physiological processes at minute quantities |
| Riddiford & Truman | Famous endocrinological study of insects;by litigation and decapitation of insects, localization of sites which control development and reproduction were determined;found that substances distant from release point affect tissues |
| Sites of Hormone Production | Neuronal,neuroglandular or glandular centers; tissues and organs are specialized for endocrine role |
| Neurosecretory Cells (NSC) | Modified neurons found in CNS,PNS and SNS that produce most hormones; do not produce ecdysteroids or juvenile hormone, but release is regulated by NSC |
| Corpora Cardiaca | Neuromodular bodies behind the brain that store and release neurohormones including prothoracicotrophic hormone (PTTH), which stimulates secretory activity of prothoraci glands |
| Prothoracic Gland | Gland located in the thorax which secretes an acdysteroid (ecdysone,molting hormone); After hydroxylation,escdysone is converted to 20-HE and elicits the molting process of the epidermis |
| Corpus Allata | Glandular bodies in the foregut that secrete juvenile hormone (JH); JH has regulatory roles in metamorphosis and reproduction |
| Ecdysteroids | Steroids with molt promoting activity;derived from cholestoral in diet;found in all insects with ecdysone and 20-hydroxyecdysone being the most common members |
| Ecdysone | Released by the prothoracic gland into hemolymph and converted to 20-hydroxyecdysone in peripheral tissues |
| 20-HE | 20-hydroxyecdysone;the most important physiologically important ecdysteroid;important for metamorphosis by promoting molting;converted from ecdysone with the addition of hydroxyl group (OH-) |
| JH | Juvenile Hormone;forms a family of sesquiterpenoid compounds and can be a single or a mixture;has 2 major roles 1.control of metamorphosis 2.regulation of reproductive development; maintains larval characteristics by inhibiting metmorphosis |
| Major Roles of Juvenile Hormones | 1.control of metamorphosis - controls the degree and direction of differentiation at each molt 2.regulation of reproductive development - stimulates the deposition of yolk in eggs(vitellogenesis)& affects accessory gland activity and phermone production |
| Neurohormones | Largest class of insect hormones,generally small proteins;aka neuropeptides |
| Functions of Neuropeptides | 1.master regulators of insect development 2.homeostasis3.metabolism4.reproduction5.facilitate JH and ecdysteroid secretion |
| How Neuropeptides Work | 1.Neuropeptides reach terminal effector sites along nerve axons or via hemolymph2.Indirectly exert control via their action on other endocrine glands(corpus allata & prothoracic gland) |
| Importance of Neuropeptide Binding Site | Inhibitory & stimulatory signals are involved in neuropeptide regulation and effectiveness depends on binding site affinity of target cells |
| Hemolymph | Insect body fluid that circulates freely around internal organs;dorsal vessel(heart) moves hemolymph using peristaltic contractions;no direct contact with cells due to basement membrane covering which regulates exchange of materials |
| Jobs of Hemolymph | 1. 20% of body weight2.Contains ions,molecules & cells3.Mediates all chemical exchanges between tissues(hormones,nutrients,wastes & rarely respiration)4.Pressure important for ventilation,thermoregulation & molting |
| Plasma | water reservoir of inorganicions, lipids, sugars, amino acids, proteins,organic acids and other compounds (i.e.,antifreeze proteins) |
| Hemocytes | Hemocytes, or blood cells, areplasmatocytes, granulocytes, andprohemocytes with four basic functions:1. phagocytosis 2. encapsulation3. coagulation 4. storage or distribution |
| Nephrocytes | Nephrocytes, or pericardial cells, areductless glands that sieve and metabolizesubstances from hemolymph. |
| Oenocytes | Oenocytes, occur in the hemocoel, fat body,or epidermis and may assist with cuticle lipid synthesis and hemoglobin production |
| Circulation in Insects | Circulation is maintained by a system of muscular pumps moving hemolymph through compartments separated bymembranes.Main pump is the dorsal vessel, composed of anterior aorta & posterior heart |
| Dorsal Vessel | the main pump (i.e.,anterior aorta and posterior heart), withsegmentally arranged ostia that allowinward and outward flow of hemolymph |
| Ostia | Tiny holes in dorsal vessel that allow hemolymph to enter |
| Pericardial Sinus | above dorsal diaphragmforms alary muscles that support the dorsalvessel,& supplies head with hemolymph(moves anterior with coller hemolymph to abdomen);below ventral diaphragm & directs hemolymph backwards andlaterally(moves posterior&laterally) |
| Acessory Pulsatile Organs | muscular pumps at the base of antennae, wings, andlegs (pushes hemolymph into appendages) |
| Gas Exchange in Insects | Insects must obtain oxygen & eliminate CO2 from cells;occurs by internal air-filled tracheae & tracheoles contact all internal organs & tissues |
| Spiracles | Air enters through spiracle openings positioned laterally on the body (i.e., 2thoracic, 8 abdominal), with an atrium and avalve. |
| Taenida | spiral ridges of cuticular liningthat allow flexibility of tracheae; shed withexoskeleton; Also helps with water loss; attached to sarcolemma |
| Open & Closed Tracheal Systems | Terrestrial and many aquatic insects have an open tracheal system (e.g., air sacs)Ex: mosquito larvae,land insects, but some aquatic larvae have a closed tracheal system using cutaneous gas exchange (i.e.,gas gills)Ex:Mayfly larvae,Dragonfly larvae |
| Sarcolemma | plasma membrane of a muscles cell designed to receive and conduct stimuli. |
| Unique Adaptations to Tracheal Systems | 1.Giant Water Bug - posterior siphon2.Hemiptera -air bubble under elytra3.Natatorial Legs - trap small air bubbles |
| Tracheal System Air Exchange | Oxygen-->In 1.Spiracles 2. Trachea 3.Tracheole 4. Cells : Carbon Dioxide-->Out 4.Cells 3. Tracheole 2. Trachea 1. Spiracles |
| Gas Exchange | compromise between securing oxygen and reducing water loss, Spiracles in many insects are closed mostof the time, opening periodically; large ordilated tracheae may serve as oxygenreserves when spiracles are closed. |
| Spiracles | closed mostof the time, opening periodically; large ordilated tracheae may serve as oxygenreserves when spiracles are closed;Coordinated opening and closing ofspiracles and ventilatory movementsprovides unidirectional air flow. |
| Sensory Complexity of Insects | Allows both simple & Complex Behaviors;1.Flight Control involves visual(beacons &landmarks)2.Odor(plumosa antennae) 3.Sound Cues(stoneflies&orthoptera) |
| Setae | cuticular modifications which detect external stimuli |
| Sensilla | Sensilla, and their specialized cells, are sensory organs thatprotrude from the cuticle, or lie within or beneath it. |
| Mechanical Stimuli | associated with distortion caused bymechanical movement as a result of the environment |
| Types of Mechanical Stimuli | 1.touch 2.body stretching & stress 3.position 4.pressure 5.gravity 6.vibrations 7.pressure changes8.sound transmission & hearing. |
| Trichoid Sensilla | cuticular projections that develop from epidermal cells that switch from cuticle production |
| Tactile Mechanoreception Cells | 1. trichogen cell: conical hair growth2. tormogen cell: socket growth3. sensory neuron: dendrite and axon growth, and CNS connection |
| Proprioceptors | self-perception receptors, provide insects withcontinuous knowledge of the relative position of body parts andorientation relative to gravity |
| Examples of Proprioceptors 1 | Hair plates are grouped sensilla that are connected at the joints ofadjacent body parts; flexion of joint allows monitoring of relativepositions of different body parts. |
| Examples of Proprioceptors 2 | 2. Stretch receptors are internal proprioceptors associated withmuscles (e.g., abdominal and gut walls) that monitor abdominal distensionor ventilation rate. |
| Examples of Proprioceptors 3 | 3. Campaniform sensilla are raised cuticular caps located onjoints of legs and wings, and other areas liable to distortion. |
| Importance of Sound Recption & Vibrational Signals | 1.reproductive isolation2.attraction from distance3.courtship4.territorial behavior5.social insect communication6.predator defense |
| Insect Mechanoreceptive Communication System | continuum fromsubstrate vibration reception to hearing with tympani |
| Non-tympanal Vibration Reception | detects substrate-borne signals andperceives movement of surrounding medium (e.g., air or water)Examples: Water Strider using echolocation |
| Chordodontal Organs | subcuticular mechanoreceptors that receivevibrations Ex: subgenual organ, Johnston’s organ |
| Insect Tympanal Reception | involves a specific receptor structure thatresponds to distant sounds transmitted by airborne vibration |
| Tympanum | linked to chordotonalorgans and associated with air-filled sacs (modified trachea) that enhance sound reception;located on many structures; evolved several times from proprioceptors |
| Orthopteran Tympanal Sound Reception | well developed;tympanal organs on the tibia of each fore leg connected to aprothoracic spiracle;Ex:1.Cricket acoustic tracheae are connected to ventilatory spiracles of prothorax 2.katydids have an isolated acoustic tracheae (directional hearing) |
| Stridulation | Insect sound production;involves scraperand file;Stridulation occurs in species of many orders of insects, butorthopterans show most elaboration and diversity. |
| Stridulation Examples 1 | 1.Grasshoppers stidulate using femur and tegmina2.katydids & crickets use tegmina3.Stoneflies use substrate vibrations for male-female triangulation4.Mosquitoes use wing beat frequency in mating swarms |
| Stridulation Examples 2 | 5.Cicadas use an elastic cuticle,or tymbal, that alternates muscular distortion& relaxation to give clicks or modulated pulses of sound6.Arctiid moths can hear ultrasound&produce high frequency clicking sound using tymbals |
| Thermoreception | detect variation in temperature,although the function and location of receptors is unclear;Insect antennae sense temperature and humidity; some insect haveleg receptors(amputation experiment) |
| Thermoreception Examples 1 | 1.Cockroaches have temperature receptors onarolium and pulvilli of tarsi2.Moths have internal temperature receptors that control temperaturedependentflight muscle activity (hemolymph circulation) |
| Thermoreception Examples 2 | 3.Woodboring beetles (Buprestidae: Melanophila) detect and orienttowards forest fires, where smoldering pine trees are oviposition sites- pit organs, with sensilla, on legs detect infrared radiation |
| Poikilothermic | characteristic of insects;lack the ability to maintain a constant temperature independent of fluctuating ambient conditions |
| Temperature Variation | can vary from ambient either behaviorally using external heat (ectothermy) or physiological mechanisms(endothermy); flight generates 94% of body heat |
| Behavioral Thermoregulation | may involve basking, wing position andorientation, shade-seeking, or “stilting”. |
| Physiological Thermoregulation 1 | requires a metabolic control of bodytemperature1.temperature regulation(flight muscles generate heat)2.insect color3.surface sculpturing (hair on moths,scales on butterflies)4.Insect gliding(butterflies&locusts) |
| Physiological Thermoregulation 2 | 5.countercurrent circulation of hemolymph (ex:bees & moths)6.generate heat before flight by contracting synchronous/asynchronous flight muscles to produce ventilatory abdominal pumping(odonates)7.Maintain temperature by shivering(honey bees) |
| Chemical Senses | 1. contact chemoreception - detection of aqueous chemicals (taste, gustatory)2. distant chemoreception - detection of airbornechemicals (smell, olfactory) |
| Chemoreceptors | Chemicals are trapped & transfered to recognition sites, and stimulate nerves impulses |
| Chemoreceptor Example | Dipterans have:1. contact receptors on mouthparts (taste)2. contact receptors on ovipositor (oviposition sites)3. distant and contact receptors on antennae;mechanoreceptors4. chemoreceptors on tarsi for eliciting food searching |
| Chemoreceptor Sensilla | Insect chemoreceptors are sensilla with one or more pores(holes)1. uniporous - one pore2. multiporous - several pores |
| Uniporous Chemoreceptor Sensilla 1 | hairs, pegs, plates, orpores in a cuticular depression, with an apical orcentral location |
| Uniporous Chemoreceptor Sensilla 2 | 1.have chamber beneath the cuticle in basal contact with dendritic chamber,& may extrude liquid to transfer chemicals;2.detect chemicals by contact,work in parallel with gustatory(contact) neurons to enhance or reduce feeding activity |
| Multiporous Chemoreceptor Sensilla | major olfactory chemoreceptors of insects;structured with severalround pores or slits that lead to a pore kettle;structured with numerous poretubules, which run inward to meet multibranched dendrites. |
| Multiporous Chemoreception Steps 1 | 1. chemical arrival at pore of olfactory sensillum2. chemical enters pore kettle and contacts/crosses cuticular lining of a pore kettle3. odorant-binding proteins (OBP) are produced by tormogen and trichogen cells |
| Multiporous Chemoreception Steps 2 | 4. OBP releases the chemical to olfactory receptorbinding site on the dendrite of neuron5. chemical triggers a cascade of neural activity leading toappropriate behavior |
| Phermones 1 | substances that are secretedto the outside by one individual & received by a second individual of the same species, which reacts;produced by exocrine glandsderived from epidermal cells, and locatedanywhere on insect body |
| Phermones 2 | classified by chemical structure, and either release behaviors (moth/butterfly sex pheromone) or prime physiological events (locust crowding pheromone) |
| Pheromone Categories | 1.sex 2.aggregation 3.spacing 4.trail forming 5.alarm |
| Sex Phermones | used for communication between male and female conspecific insects |
| Sex Phermones Example | Mate location and courtship involves chemicalsin two stages:1. sex attraction pheromones acting at a distance (mostlyfemales)2. courtship pheromones employed prior to mating Ex: Silkworm Moth |
| Aggregation Phermones | allow conspecific insects of both sexes to crowd around the source of the pheromone |
| Aggregation Phermones Example 1 | 1. western pine beetles attack ponderosa pines2. colonizing females release exo-brevicomin augmented by myrcene (terpene from damage pine tree)3. exo-brevicomin and myrcene mixture attracts both sexes |
| Aggregation Phermones Example 2 | 4. newly arrived males add frontalin to chemical mix5. frontalin, exo-brevicomin, and myrcene mixture is a synergistic lure that increases pine beetle aggregation&overwhelms defensive secretions of pine tree |
| Functions of Aggregation Phermones | 1. increase mating (mosquitoes, mayflies)2. security from predation (bees, wasps, ants)3. overcome host resistance (pine beetles)4. cohesion of social insects (ants) |
| Spacing Phermones | dispersionpheromones, affect appropriate spacing on food resources |
| Spacing Phermones Example | Tephritid fly example:1. female fly lays a single egg in fruit where solitary larvawill develop2. ovipositing female deposits oviposition-deterrentpheromone on fruit where egg was laid3. subsequent oviposition by other females is deterred |
| Spacing Phermones - Trail Marking | volatile and short-lived chemicals that are used to mark trails to food and nests(ants);metabolic waste products, and may be species specific; amount of wastes could determine direction(further studies needed) |
| Alarm Phermones | chemical releasersproduced by aggregating insects for alarmbehavior |
| Alarm Phermones Example | provoked by predator presence orthreats to nests; elicits rapid dispersal or escape from an unwinnable conflict with predator;may induce aggressivedefense of nests(hymenoptera) |
| Basic Components for Insect Vision | include:1. lens to focus light onto photoreceptors (light-sensitive molecules)2. nervous system that is complex enough to process visual information |
| Rhabdom | photoreceptive structure, withretinula (nerve) cells and microvilli (visualpigment) |
| Basic Function of Insect Vision | 1. light fall onto rhabdom and changes configuration of visual pigment 2. triggers a change in electrical potential across cell membrane 3. signal transmitted by chemical synapses to nerve cellsin brain |
| Visual Systems Configurations | 1. resolving power for images 2. light sensitivity (minimum ambient light level) |
| Visual Organs of Insects | 1.Compund Eye 2.Dermal Detection 3.Stemmata(larval ocelli) 4.Ocelli |
| Visual Organs of Insects - Compound Eye | most sophisticated insect visual organ;All adult insects and nymphs have a pair oflarge, prominent compound eyes, which cover360 degrees of visual space;Repetitions of many individual units of ommatidia, and resembles simple stemmata |
| Ommatidia | tiny lens-capped optical units ; 1. cuticular lens overlying a crystalline cone2. light is directed and focused on retinula cells3. retinula cells are surrounded by light-absorbingpigment cells, which isolates them from neighbors |
| Apposition Eyes | type of compound eye found in diurnal insects which allows all ommatidia to focus at one site to creat panoramic view |
| Superposition Eyes | Type of compound eye found in nocturnal insects which allows images from ommatidia to overlap to increase light intensity but creates blurriness |
| Visual Organs of Insects - Dermal Detection | sensory structures below cuticle butno optical system with focusing structuresaphids have light-sensitive cells that detect changes in day length (controls reproduction) |
| Visual Organs of Insects - Stemmata | Larval Ocelli;visual organs of larvalholometabolous insects located on head; photoreceptors with associated nerve cells |
| Visual Organs of Insects - Ocelli | integrate light over a large visual field; highlysensitive to low light intensities and subtle light changes;no high-resolution vision; “horizon detectors” to control rolland pitch movements in flight |
| Bioluminescence | light production,most spectacular visual display of insects;Some insects co-opt symbiotic luminescentbacteria or fungi, but self-luminescence is found in few insects (mostly coleopterans) |
| Lampyridae | Family of insects which have bioluminescence;(fireflies, glow worms, lighteningbugs) use one to many luminescent organs toemit white, yellow, red, or green light |
| Function of Bioluminescence | Principal role of light emission is courtshipsignaling, but used for luring prey |
| Bioluminescence Example | involves (Photinus andPhoturis):1. luciferase oxidizes luciferin in presence of ATP and oxygen2. luciferase activity produces oxyluciferin, CO2, and light3. ATP release controls the rate of flashing and pH controls light frequency (color) |
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YoungbloodScience
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