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a&p2 1-6
| homeostasis | refers to stability, balance, or equilibrium within a cell or the body. It is an organism’s ability to keep a constant internal environment. |
| prions | proteins that may cause misfolding of protein molecules |
| viruses | intracellular parasites that consist of RNA or DNa core surrounded by a protein coat and sometimes a lippoportein envelope |
| bacteria | tiny primitive cells that lack nuclei |
| fungi | are protists one celled organisms larger than bacteria whose DNA is organized into a nucleus |
| pathogenic animals | are large multicellular organisms such as insects and worms |
| examples of homeostais | temperature regulation regulation of carbon dioxide regulation of blood glucose level |
| fishbowl model of homeostasis | the body is like a bowl of fluid that must be kept constant , the cells are like the acessories used to maintain stability |
| wallenda model | the body is compared with a circus high wire walker |
| heating system model | the body like a home with a thermostat acting as a control center to regulate the furnace and keep the interior constantly warm |
| feedback loop | communication networks for maintaining or restoring homeostais by self- regulation through feedback |
| afferent communication | goes toward a control center or other point of reference |
| efferent communication | goes away from a control center or other point of reference |
| sensor mechanism | specific sensors detect and react to any changes from normal in a physiological viariable |
| integrating control center | information is analyzed and integrated and then if needed a specific action is initiated |
| effector mechanism | effectors directly influence controlled physiological variables |
| feedback | the process of information about a variable constantly flowing back from the sensor to the integrator |
| negative feedback in ctonrol systems | they negate changes in a variable, stabilize physiological variables produce an action that is opposite to the change that activated the system are resonsible for maintaining homeostais are much more common than positive feedback in control systems |
| positive feedback in control systems | are stimulary changing the set point |
| how are positive feedback in control systems stimulary | it amplfieis or reinforces the change that is occuring it tends to produce destabilizing effects and disrupt homeostasis |
| what is feed forward | occurs when information flows ahead to another process or feedback loop to trigger a change in anticipation of an event that will follow |
| levels of control | intracellular control intrinsic control extrinsic control |
| what is intracellular control | regulation within cells genez or enzymes can regulate cell process |
| what is intrinsic control | regulation within tissues or organs may involve chemical signals may involve other built in mechanisms |
| what is extrinsic control | regulation from organ to organ may involve nerve signals may involve endocrine signals |
| where does homeostatic control occur | within the cell from the cell to within a tissue throughout the body |
| atrophy | wasting the effects of advancing age |
| what are oganic molecules | molecules that contain c-c or c-h bonds |
| what is a free radical | temporarily unattatched highly reactive chemical group |
| carbohydrates | organic compunds containing carbon, hyrdogen and oxygen |
| monosaccarides | simple sugars with short carbon chains |
| disaccharides | simple sugars that are bonded together through a dehydration synthesis reaction |
| lipids | water insoluable organic molecules that are oficailly important biological compounds |
| what are the major roles of lipids | energy source structural role integral parts of the cell membranes |
| trigylcerides or fats | most abundant lipids and most concentrted source of energy |
| what are the building blocks of triglycerides | glycerol |
| types of fatty acids | saturated fatty acid unsaturated fatty acid |
| monosaturated | only one double bond |
| polyunsaturated | more than one double bond |
| triglycerides | are fomred by dehydration synthesis |
| phospholipids | lipid compound similar to triglycerides, one enf if hydrophilic other end is hydrophobic |
| what are the double layers that phospholipids form | bilayers |
| steroids | involved in many structural and functional roles |
| whats another name prostaglandin | tissue hormone |
| function of prostaglandin | they are released in response to a specific stimulus and then activated |
| proteins | chainlike polymers of amino acids held together by peptide bonds to form a polypeptide |
| amino acids | building blocks of proteins |
| essential amino acids | 8 amino acids that cannot be produced by the adukt human body |
| non essential amino acids | 13 amino acids that can be produced from molecules available in the adult human body |
| what do amino acids consists of | a carbon atom, an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom and a functional group or radical r |
| what are the levels of protein structure | primary structure secondary structure tertiary structure quantertiary str |
| what is the primary structure of protein organization | refers to the number , kind and sequence of amino acids that make up the polypeptide chain held together by peptide bonds |
| what is the secondary structure of protein organization | polypeptide is coiled or bent into helices and pleted sheets stabilized by hydrogen bonds may include recurring patterns of helices and/or sheets |
| what is tertiary structure of protein organization | a secondary structure can be further twisted and inverted to a complex globular shape |
| what may the tertiary structure contain | domains whivh act as functional units |
| what is the quanternary structure of a protein organization | the highest level of organization occuring when protein contain more than one polypeptide chain |
| what is the importance of protein shape | shape of protein molecules determine their function |
| native state | final function shape of the protein |
| what forms the structures of the body | structural proteins |
| what causes chemical changes in the molecules | functional proteins |
| what happens when denatures proteins loose their shape | they loose their function |
| what can denature proteins | change in ph temperature radiation other chemicals |
| proteins have parts that | move to perfrom their functions |
| dna | composed of deoxyribonuceltides , |
| what is the deoxyribonucleotides consist of | pentose sugar, phosphate group, nitrogenous base |
| what is the shape of dna | double helix |
| what ar the base pairs held by | adenine bonds to thymine cytosine binds to guanine |
| what is rna composed of | pentose sugar, phosphate group and nitrogenus base |
| what are the nitrogenous bases for rna | adenine, uracil, guanine and cytosine |
| functions of rna | act as enzymes or silence gene expression |
| nucleotide role in the body | atp |
| another name for atp | energy currency of cells |
| NAD & FAD | used as coenzymes to transfer energy from one chemical pathway to another` |
| cAMP | made from atp by removing two phosphate groups to form a monophosphate. used as an intracellular signal |
| how do substances transport proteins through the membrane | specificity direction rate selectivly permeable |
| what is specificity | size shape and charges dertermine which specific particles are transported by transport proteins |
| direction? | some transporters move particles in one direction only |
| rate? | determined by opening/closing passageways and the number of transporters in the membrane |
| what is the passive transport process | do not require any energy expenditure by the cell |
| what is diffusion | molecules move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration , down a concentration gradient |
| what is simple diffusion | molecules cross through the phospholipid bilayer, solutes permeate the membrane |
| what is osmosis | movement of water through a semipermeable membrane which prevents the passge of at lease one solute |
| what determines cell volume | water moving into or out of cells |
| cells are place in a | hypertonic solution shrivel as water flows out of them isontonic solution do not change volume hypotonic solution swell as water flows into them |
| facilitated diffusion | a special kind of diffusion in which movement of molecules is made more efficiently by the action of transporters embedded in a cell membrane |
| what happens in facilitated diffusion | transport substances down a concentration gradient |
| what is channel mediated passive transport | channels are specific allow only one type of solute to pass through |
| gated channels | maybe be open or closed, may be tiggered by a variety of stimuli |
| aquaporins | are water channels that permit rapid osmosis |
| carrier mediated passive transport | carriers attract and bind to the solute , change shapeand release the solute out the other side of the carrier |
| role of passive transport process | channels and carriers allow membranes to be selectively permeable one way transporters may determine direction of transport |
| types of passive transport | diffusion directly across phospholipid bilayer or through membrane channels and carriers driven by concentration gradient of solute osmosis does not require metabolic energy and moves ions and molecules into and out of the cells and organelles |
| active transport process | require the expenditure of metabolic energy by the cell |
| what is transport by pumps | pumps are membreane transporters that move a substance against their concentration gradient |
| what os transport by vesticles | allow substances to enter or leave the interior of a cell without actually moving through its plasma membrane |
| endocytosis | the plasma membrane traps some extracellular material and brings it into the cell in a vesicle |
| what are the 2 types of endocytosis | phagocytosis pinocytosis |
| what is phagocytosis | condition of cell eating large particles are engulfed by the plasma membrane and enter the cell in vesicles fuse with lysosomes which digest the particles |
| what is pinocytosis | fluid and the substances dissolved in it enter the cell |
| what is receptor mediated endocytosis | membrane receptor molecules recongnize substances to be brought into the cell |
| what is exocytosis | process by which large molecules , can leave the cell even though they are too large to pass through the plasma membrane by the cytoskeleton where they are released |
| role of active transport processes | active transport requires energy use by the membrane |
| what do pumps do in the active transport process | concentrate substances on one side of a membrane as when storing an ion inside an organelle |
| what do vesicles do in active transport | they move large volumes of substances at once using a bag of membrane |
| what is cell metabolism | the set of chemical reactions in a cell |
| what is cell catbolism | breaking down of large molecules into smaller ones; usually releases energy |
| what is cell anabolism | building large molecules from small ones; usually consumes energy |
| what is the role of enzymes | chemical catalysts that reduce the activation energy needed for a reaction regulate cell metabolism chemical structure of enzymes |
| what is the chemical of enzymes | proteins of a complex shape the active site is where the enzyme molecule fits the substrate molecule |
| how are enzymes classified and named | usually have an ase ending oxidation reduction enzymes hydrolyzing enzymes phosprylating enzymes enzymes that ass or remove carbon dixide enzymes that rearrange atoms within a molecule hydrases add water to a molecule without splitting it |
| what are the general functions of enzymes | enzymes regulate cell functions by regulating metabolic pathways |
| what are examples of allosteric effectors | temperature hydrogens ion, concentration cofactors, end products of certain metabolic pathways |
| what is catabolism | cellular repiration , the pathway by which glucose is broken down to yield its stored energy, |
| what are the 3 pathways of cellular respiration | glycolosis citric acid cycle electron transport system |
| glycolosis | pathway in which glucoe is broken apart into 2 pyruvic molecules to yield a small amount of energy |
| citric acid cycle | pyruvate is converted into acetyl which is picked up a coA and enters the citric acid cycle after loosing CO2 and transferring some energy to NADH |
| electron transport system | energized electrons are carried by NADH and FADH from glycosis and the citric acid cycle to electron acceptors ambedded in the cristae of the mitochondrion |
| what is anabolism | protein synthesis is a central anabolic pathway in cells |
| what is cell growth | depends on using genetic information in dna to make the structural and functional proteins needed for cell survival |
| what is cell reproduction | ensures that genetic information is passed from one generation to the next |
| what is a central anabolic pathway in cells | protein synthesis |
| what is dna | a double helix polymer that functions to transfer information encoded in genes to direct the synthesis of proteins |
| what is a gene | a segment of a dna molecule that consists of up to several thousand pairs of nucleotides and contains the code for synthesizing one RNA molecule which may be translated into one peptide |
| coding RNA | Mrna which is a transcript for one polypeptide |
| non coding RNA | Rna and tRNA. which are each copies of a DNA gene byt regulate. processes rather than code. for a polypeptide |
| transcription | mRNA forms along a segment of one strans of DNA |
| Editing the transcript | noncoding introns are removed and the remaining exons are apliced together to form the final edited version of the mRNA copy of the DNa segment |
| spliceosomes | are ribosomes sized structures in the nucleus that splice mRNa transcripts |
| Translation | can br inhibited by RNA interference which protects the cell against viral infection |
| post translation process | chaperone molecules and other enzymes in the cytosol, ER, golgi apparatus help fold polypeptides polypeptides may combine into larger protein molecules or hybrid molecules |
| proteatome | all the proteins synthesized by cell makeup the ells proteaome all the human proteins synthesized in the whole body are called the human proteame |
| interphase | newly formed cells produced a variety of molecules and other strucutres necessary for growth by using the information contained in the genes of DNA molecules |
| production of cytoplasm | more cell material is made, growth and replication of DNA in acticipation of cell division |
| DNA replication | replication of the genome. prepares the cell for reproduction |
| DNA base pairing | the dna strand uncoils and the strands come apart. along the strand a complementary strands come apart |
| chromatids | 2 new strands, attatched pairs |
| centromere | the point of attatchment on the chromatids |
| the growth of the cell life cycle | first growth phase, dna synthesis phase, second growth phase, nondividing cells |
| cell reproduction | cells reproduce by splitting themselves into 2 smaller daughter cells |
| mitotic division | the process of organizing and distributing nuclear DNA during cell division, has 4 distinct phases |
| phases of cell division | prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase |
| prophase | after the cell has prepared for reproduction during interphase, the nuclear envelope falls apart as the chromatids coil up to form chromosomes that are joined at the centromere. as chromosomes form , centrosomes move away from each other toward the poles |
| metaphase | chromosomes align along a middle equatorial plane with one chromatid of each chromosome facing its respective pole. each chromatid attatches to a spindle fiber |
| anaphase | the centromere of each chromosome splits to form 2 chromosomes, each containing a single DNA molecule. each chromosomes is pulled toward the nearest pole to form 2 separate but identical genetic info |
| telophase | dna returns to its original form and location within the cell, after completion of telophase each daughter cell begins interohase to develop into a mature cell |
| tissue | a group of similar cells that perform a common function |
| matrix | non living intercellular material |
| princripal types of tissue | epitheal, conncective, muscle, nervous |
| primary germ layers | endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm |
| histogenesis | the process of the primary germ layers diferentiating into differnt kinds of tissue |
| extracellular matrix | fluid invironment of the body, complex nonliving material between cells. in a tissue |
| components of ECM | water, proteins, proteoglycans, collagen, (callagenous fibers, rectivular fibers, basal lamina), elastin, glycoproteins |
| regeneration | growth of new tissue |
| scar | dense fibrous mass |
| what tissue has the greatest ability to regenerate | epitheal and connective |
| what tissue has limited capacity to regenerate | muscle and nervous |
| body membranes | thin tissue that covers surfaces, line cavities , divide spaces or organs |
| cutaneous membrance | primary organ of the integmentary system |
| parietal membranes | line closed body cavities |
| visceral membranes | cover visceral organs |
| pleura | surrounds lung and lines the thoracic cavity |
| peritosneum | covers the abdominal viscera and lines the abdominal cavity |
| mucus membrane | lines and protects organs that open to the exterior of the body . found in respiratory, digestive and other tracts |
| manina propria | fibrous conncective tissue underlying mucus epithelium |
| mucus | made up of water and mucins produced by goblet cells and propelled by motile cilia |
| connective tissue membranes | help trduce friction between opposing surfaces in a moveable joint |
| synovial membranes | line the spaces between bone in joints |
| epitheal tissues | form membranes that contain and protect the internal fluid environment , absorb nutrients, secrete products that regulate functions involved in homeostasis |
| connective tissues | hold organs and systems together, form structures that support the body and permit movement |
| muscle tissues | work with the connective tissues to permit movement |
| nervous tissues | work with glandular epitheal tissue to regulate body function |
| functions of the bone | support, protection, movement, mineral storage, hematopoesis |
| types of bones | long bones short bones flat bones irrgular bones sesamoid bones |
| compact bone | dense and solid |
| canncellous bone | characterized by open space partially filled with a lattice of thin branched structures supporting soft tissue |
| diaphysis | main shaft of long bone, function to provide strong support without cumbersome weight |
| epiphysis | both ends of a long bone, function to provide attatchemtns for muscles to give stability to joints |
| articular cartilage | to cushion jolts and blows |
| periosteum | dense white fibrous membrane that covers bone, contains cells that form and destroy bone, contains blood vessels important in growth and repair, contains blood vessels that send branches into bone |
| medullary | tubelike hollow space in diaphysis, filled with yellow marrow in adults |
| endosteum | thin fibroud membrane that lines the medullary cavity |
| structure of flat bones | innner portion is cancellous bone covered on the outside with compact bone |
| inorganic salts | slender needlelike crystals are oriented to most effectively resist stress and mechanical deformation |
| hyroxyapatite | crystals of calcium and phosphate contribute to bone hardness |
| organic matrix | composite of collagenous fibers, protein and polysaccardies that add overall strength of bone and gives some degree of resilance to bone |
| compact bone | contains cylinder strucutral units called osteons and haversian systems |
| osteon | surround central canals that run lengthwise through bone and are connected by transverse cancals, permit delivery of nutrients and removl of waste products |
| structure of osteon | lamellae, lacrunae, canaliculi , central canal |
| concentric | cylinder shapes layers of calcified matrix around the central canal |
| interstitial | layers of bone matric between the osteons, left over from previous osteons |
| circumfrential | few layers of bone matrix that surrounds all the osteon, run along the outer circumfrence on a bone and inner circumfrence |
| lacunae | small spaces containing tissue fluid in which bone cells are located between hard layers of the lamella |
| canaliculi | ulta small canals radiating in all directions from the lacrunae and connected them to eachother and to the central canal |
| central canal | extends lengthwise through the center of each osteon and contains lymphatic vessels |
| blood supply | bone cells recieve blood supply from the bone marrow in the internal medullary cavity of callous bone. |
| type of bone cells | osteoblasts osteoclasts osteocytes |
| 2 types of bone marrow | red marrow yellow marrow |
| types of cartilage | hyaline elastic fibrocartilage |
| fracture | break in continuity of bone |
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