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Bio 101 Exam 2
Meiosis, DNA Replication, Mitosis, DNA, Mutations
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Cells undergo mitosis for three main reasons: | Growth Repair Asexual Reproduction |
| When cells become too big and the volume becomes too big for their ______, they need to _______. | Surface area, divide |
| How many times can they divide? | Cells divide until they are no longer able to divide |
| Cells undergo a programmed cell death called _______ | Apoptosis |
| Stages of Mitosis (split into two main phases) | Interphase and Mitotic Phase |
| What is interphase (mitosis)? | Growth and replication of DNA |
| Interphase is the ______ phase | Preparation |
| What is the mitotic phase (mitosis)? | Division of cell into 2 daughter cells |
| The miotic phase is where _____ | The cell actually divides |
| 90% of the time a cell will be under ________ | Interphase |
| How many stages does interphase have? | 3 phases |
| What are the 3 stages of interphase? | G1 S G2 |
| What occurs during the first stage of interphase (G1)? | The small cell tries to obtain nutrients and grow at the same time |
| What occurs during the second stage of interphase (S)? | Synthesis (the cell is growing and duplicating its DNA) |
| What occurs during the third stage of interphase (G2)? | The cell keeps growing and doing whatever cell job it has |
| In S phase, DNA is ______ and ______ | Copied and created |
| Specifically, a ______ is copied in order to make __ identical sets of __________ | Chromosome, 2/two, chromosomes |
| Chromosomes are connected together in the middle by a ________ | Centromere |
| A single copy of a chromosome is called a ________ | Chromatid |
| What are the four stages of mitosis (miotic phase)? | Prophase Anaphase Metaphase Telophase |
| What is the additional step of the mitotic phase called? | Cytokinesis |
| During Prophase (Mitosis), Chromatics are ______, nuclear envelope _______, centrioles appear and _______ to the ______, and ______ fibers form | Condensed, dissolve, migrate, opposite sides, spindle |
| During Metaphase (Mitosis), chromosomes ________ on the _______ _____, _________ are attached to the _______ fibers. | Line up, metaphase plate, spindle |
| During Anaphase, spindle fibers will ______, then the centromeres will _______, and the sister chromatids are ______ away from each other and towards the _____. | Contract, divide, pulled, poles |
| During telophase, chromosomes will have _______ the ______, and new nuclear _______ will form around the ____ new nuclei. | Reached, poles, membranes, two |
| In cytokinesis, the cytoplasm ____ distributes between the ___ new cells. | Equally, two/2 |
| After mitosis, the cells _____ to _____ to go through __, __, and ___ again. | Return, interphase, G1, S, G2 |
| Chromosomes will not ____ back to _____. | Unpack, chromatin |
| The cycle repeats until ____________. | The cells finally die |
| Meiosis is another form of ___ ______ where gametes with ____ the number of _________ are produced. | Cell division, half, chromosomes |
| Diploid(2n) -> haploid(n) for _____ | Meiosis |
| This is _____ ___________ and is split into ___ stages (_____ I and _____ II) | Sexual reproduction, two, meiosis I and meiosis II |
| In sexual reproduction, we have the process of _______ | Fertilization |
| During fertilization sperm and egg fuse together to for a ______. | Zygote |
| Example, egg is n = 23 and the sperm is n = 23, the zygote combines and becomes _________ | 2n = 46 (46 total fertilization) |
| During Interphase I (meiosis), chromosomes ______ during __ phase, and each _______ chromosome consists of ___ identical sister chromatids attached at their ________, centriole pairs also _____ | Replicate, S, duplicate, two, centromeres, replicate |
| During Meiosis I, it involves ________ the chromosome number by ______ | Reducing, one-half |
| Meiosis I has four phases: | Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I |
| Meiosis Prophase I is the ______ and most _____ phase (__%). | Longest, complex, 90 |
| During Meiosis I: Prophase I, chromosomes ________, _______ occurs (where ________ chromosomes will come together to form a ______). | Condense, synapsis, homologous, tetrad |
| What is a tetrad? | Two chromosomes or four chromatids (sister and nonsister chromatids) |
| What are homologous chromosomes? | Similar in shape and size (maternal/paternal) |
| There are homologous pairs of chromosomes (____) in the same position on _________ | Tetrads, homologues |
| Us as humans have ____ pairs of ________ chromosomes | 23, homologous chromosomes |
| Our 23 chromosomes consist of: | 22 pairs of autosomes 1 pair of sex chromosomes |
| What is crossing over? | Segments of nonsister chromatids break and reattach to other chromatids |
| Crossing over may occur between _______ chromatids at the __________ | Nonsister, chiasmata |
| Chiasmata are ________________ | The sites of crossing over |
| Metaphase I is the ____ phase where ______ align on the ________ _____, and ______ _______ occurs | Shortest, tetrads, metaphase plate, independent assortment |
| What is independent assortment? | The orientation of homologous pairs to poles is random for variation |
| In Anaphase I, homologous chromosomes ________ and ________ towards the _______. _______ chromatids remain _________ at their ________ | Separate, move, poles, sister, attached, centromeres |
| In Telophase I, each ____ has a haploid set of ________. Cytokinesis occurs and ____ haploid _______ ____ are formed. | Pole, chromosomes, two, daughter cells |
| Meiosis II, no ________ II | Interphase |
| In Meiosis II, Prophase II is the same as prophase in _______. The _____ and ______ disappear, chromosomes _______, and ______ forms | Mitosis, nucleus and nucleolus, condense, spindle |
| In Meiosis II, Metaphase II is the same as metaphase in ______. Chromosomes (not ________) line up at the _______ | Mitosis, homologous, equator |
| In Meiosis II, Anaphase II same as anaphase in _____. Sister chromatids ________. | Mitosis, separate |
| In Meiosis II, Telophase II same as telophase in ______. Nuclei and nucleoli _____, ______ fibers ______. | Mitosis, reform, spindle, disappear |
| After cytokinesis occurs ____ haploid daughter cells are produced called _____ (egg and sperm). | Four, gametes |
| Meiosis will always result in the number of chromosomes by _____ | Half |
| Daughter cells _____ from ______ and _____ _____ | Differ, parent, each other |
| It involves ____ divisions while _____ is only _____ | Two, mitosis, one |
| Meiosis I differences from mitosis include: | Synapsis, metaphase I, anaphase I, and separation of homologous pairs of chromosomes |
| Meiosis is the same as mitosis except it creates __ daughter cells not __. | 4, 2 |
| What is a genome? | The complete complement of an organism’s DNA |
| Genome includes: | Genes and non-coding DNA organized into chromosomes |
| Genes (for eukaryotic cells) is _____________________ | Organized into chromosomes |
| Genes have _____________ | Specific areas located on the chromosomes |
| What is heredity? | The way of transferring genetic information to offspring |
| Chromosome theory of heredity: | Chromosomes carry genes |
| Gene: | Unit of heredity |
| What is asexual reproduction? | When most single-celled organisms reproduce by splitting, budding, and parthenogenesis |
| Some multicellular organisms can also ______ asexually, this results in ______ (offspring genetically _____ to parent). | Reproduce, clones, identical |
| Before _____ reproduction is the ______ of ____ gametes to produce a single _______ | Sexual, fusion, two, zygote |
| The fusion of two gametes to produce a single zygote causes greater ______ variation, and allows for ________ recombination | Genetic, genetic |
| The zygote has ________ from ______ different ______ | Gametes, two, parents |
| Karyotype is noted for being an __________________, it’s a collection of _______ from miotic cells | Individual’s ordered display of chromosomes, chromosomes |
| If the chromosome is stained, we can then find the _____________ of the chromosome | Band pattern |
| A male karyotype has ___ and ____ chromosomes for pair 23 | X, Y |
| A female karyotype has ___ and ___ chromosomes for pair 23 | X, X |
| There is an ____ copy of a chromosome for Down syndrome at spot ___. This is known as __________. (Tri for three). | Extra, 21, Trisomy 21 |
| In diploid cells, chromosomes are in __________ pairs | Homologous |
| The only ones that are not in ___________ pairs are ____ ____________ (X, Y). | Homologous, sex chromosomes |
| Other chromosomes are known as _________ and they have ___________ | Autosomes, homologues |
| In simpler terms, homologous chromosomes are __ pieces of ____ within a diploid that carry the ____ genes that are both from a ______ source | 2, DNA, same, parental |
| Each parent provides the same _____ chromosomes that will ______ the same genes. | 23, encode |
| ____ chromosomes are donated by each parent, a total of _____ or ___ pairs. | 23, 46, 23 |
| Gametes are _____/____ | Sperm/ova |
| Gametes contain ___ autosomes and ___ sex chromosome | 22, 1 (they’re haploid number n = 23 for humans) |
| ____________ causes a zygote with ___ haploid sets of chromosomes, creates a ______ cell | Fertilization, 2, diploid |
| Diploid cell → | 2n = 46 (n = 23 in humans) |
| Most cells in the body are produced by __________ | Mitosis |
| Only gametes are produced by __________ | Meiosis |
| Meiosis has ___ steps, while Mitosis has ____. | 8, 4 |
| There are haploid cells in ______ and diploid cells in ______ | Meiosis (produces 4 different sex cells/haploid cells), mitosis (produces 2 identical diploid daughter cells) |
| ______ reduces the chromosome number in ______, and ______ has the _______ number of chromosomes as the parent cell. | Meiosis, half, Mitosis, same |
| In Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment, alleles of ____ or more _________ genes get _____ into ________ independently of one another | Two, different, sorted, gametes |
| The allele a _______ receives for ___ gene does not influence the _____ received for another _____. (Independent Assortment) | Gamete, one, allele, gene |
| What is chiasmata? | The site of crossing over (occurs at synapsis) |
| What is synapsis? | The exchange of genetic material between non-sister chromatids |
| Crossing over produces _________ chromosomes | Recombinant |
| Recombination is the process where pieces of _____ are _____ and ______ to produce new combinations of _______. | DNA, broken, recombined, alleles |
| What are the two strands coiled together called? | Double helix |
| DNA is split into four bases lettered: | A, T, C, G |
| A stands for _______, A = ___ | Adenine, 30.3% |
| T stands for _________, T = ____ | Thymine, 30.3% |
| G stands for _________, G = ___ | Guanine, 19.5% |
| C stands for _______, C = | Cytosine, 19.5% |
| Chargaff’s Rule states _______ must pair with _______, and ________ must pair with ________. These bases form weak ________ _____ with one another. | Adenine, Thymine; Guanine, Cytosine; Hydrogen Bonds |
| DNA is noted as being ____ stands ______ together as a _____ _____. | Two, coiled, double helix |
| The sides of DNA are made up of ___________ which are bonded to ____ (_______) which are bonds called ______________ bonds | Deoxyribose, PO4 (phosphate), Phosphodiester |
| The center of the double helix are all _________ ______ which are bonded by weak __________ bonds. | Nitrogen bases, hydrogen bonds |
| DNA stands for _____________ | DeoxyRibonucleic Acid |
| The subunits of DNA are made of _________ | Nucleotides |
| Nucleotides are made up of ___________, ___________, and ____________ | Phosphate group, 5-carbon sugar (deoxyribose), Nitrogenous base |
| One strand of DNA will go from __’ to __’. | 5, 3 |
| The other strand of DNA will go from __’ to __’. | 3, 5 |
| How many nitrogenous bases are there in DNA? | 4 |
| Which nitrogenous bases are double-ringed purines? | Adenine (A), Guanine (G) |
| Which nitrogenous bases are single-ringed pyrimidines? | Thymine (T), Cytosine (C) |
| Purines can only pair with _______ | Pyrimidines |
| For _________ and ________ there needs to be ___ hydrogen bonds to pair them. | Adenine and Thymine, 2 |
| For _________ and _________ there needs to be ___ hydrogen bonds to pair them. | Guanine and Cytosine, 3 |
| A + T = __ hydrogen bonds | 2 |
| G + C = __ hydrogen bonds | 2 |
| Guanine and Cytosine are harder to break because __________ | The three hydrogen bonds |
| When finding percentages for Guanine, Cytosine, Adenine, or Thymine, remember that all four of those percentages add up to _____%. | 100% |
| The Synthesis phase is during the _________ of the cell cycle | Interphase |
| The S phase is when ____ replication takes place and it takes place in the ________ of the ________ cells. | DNA, nucleus, eukaryotic |
| DNA replication beings at the ___________ | Origin of replication |
| The ____ strands will then ______ ___ causing a replication ____. (This is where we will have new strands) | Two, open up, fork |
| There is an enzyme noted as _______. This enzyme _________ the DNA strands by ________ _____ the ______ hydrogen bonds. (DNA replication) | Helicase; unwinds, breaking down, weak |
| There are _____ that are _____ strand binding proteins which will help the ____ strands be _______ for the time being. (DNA Replication) | Proteins, single, DNA, separated |
| In order for DNA replication to begin, ___ ______ are needed. | RNA primers |
| Primase is an ______ that ________ the RNA primer | Enzyme, synthesizes |
| DNA polymerase _________________ | Adds new nucleotides to the 3’ end of the DNA (will have built a new 5’ to 3’ strand) |
| The lagging strand is __________ discontinuously against the _________ of _______. | Synthesized, direction, replication |
| Okazaki Fragments are ___________________________ | A series of short segments on the lagging strand |
| These fragments are put ______ ___________ by an enzyme called ________ to make one strand | Back together, Ligase |
| The idea that two strands of the parental molecule separate and each acts as a template for a new complementary strand | Semiconervatic model of replication (new DNA consists of 1 parental (original) and 1 new strand) |
| What can damage a DNA? | Chemicals and ultraviolet radiation |
| If DNA is damaged, cells must ______________ | Constantly repair DNA |
| When one of 50 repair enzymes is used to remove damaged areas of DNA | Excision repair |
| DNA _________ and DNA ___________ are used to replace and bond the new nucleotides together | Polymerase, ligase |
| Enzymes in DNA Replication, what are the five stages (these five are all activities at the replication fork)? | Helicase Binding Proteins Primase DNA polymerase Ligase |
| What does Helicase do? | Unwinds the double helix DNA by separating the two strands to create a replication fork |
| What do binding proteins do? | The binding proteins keep the strands separated |
| What does primase do? | Makes a short RNA primer that is complementary to the DNA template strand |
| What does DNA polymerase do? | It adds nucleotides to the DNA strand, it checks and removes incorrect bases |
| What does ligase do? | Seals the sugar-phosphate backbone of adjacent DNA strands, also joins Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand |
| In DNA, things move from __’ to __’ | 5, 3 |
| What is the complementary DNA strand for the sequence {DNA 5’-CATACG-3’} | DNA ‘3-GTATGC-5’ |
| Central dogma states that information flows in one direction: | DNA → RNA → Protein |
| Transcription is the ____________________ | Flow of information from DNA to RNA |
| Translation is the ______________________ | Flow of information from RNA to protein |
| There are __ amino acids that are encoded from ___ nucleotides (__,__,__,__) | 20, 4; A,T,C,G |
| Francis Crick and Sydney Brenner determined that DNA is read in sets of __ nucleotides for each amino acid | 3 |
| A codon is a set of __ nucleotides that specifies the for a particular amino acid | 3 |
| A reading frame is a series of nucleotides read in sets of __ (codon) | 3 |
| There are 3 stop codons used to terminate translation: | UUA, UGA, and UAG |
| The start codon ___ is used to start translation | AUG (methionine) |
| A template strand is a strand of DNA double helix used to __________ | Make RNA |
| A coding strand is a strand of DNA that is _________________________ | Complementary to the template strand |
| RNA polymerase is an enzyme that _________________________________ | Synthesizes RNA from the DNA template |
| When transcribing DNA to RNA, _________________ | formed RNA strand will contain uracil (U) instead of thymine (T) |
| DNA strand to RNA transcription | ‘3-ATCGGACT-5’ → ‘5-UAGCCUGA-3’ (T doesn’t exist for RNA so A will always become U (uracil) |
| What does the U stand for? | Uracil (RNA) |
| What are the three stages of transcription? | Initiation, Elongation, Termination |
| What is Initiation? (Hint: begin) | RNA polymerase identifies where to being transcription |
| What is Elongation? (Hint: add) | RNA nucleotides are added to the 3’ end of the new RNA |
| What is Termination? (Hint: stop) | RNA polymerase stops transcription when it encounters terminators in the DNA sequence |
| The three main types of RNA: | Messenger RNA (mRNA), Ribosomal RNA (rRNA), Transfer RNA (tRNA) |
| What does the Messenger RNA (mRNA) do? | Carries the information from DNA that encodes proteins |
| What does the Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) do? | The structural component of the ribosome |
| What does the Transfer RNA (tRNA) do? | Carries amino acids to the ribosome for translation |
| In prokaryotic cells, there is one RNA polymerase but found in two different types, those are: | Core polymerase and holoenzyme |
| What does core polymerase do? | It’s capable of RNA elongation, but not initiation (Elongation) |
| What is Holoenzyme and what does it do? | It’s composed of a core enzyme and the sigma factor which is needed for transcription initiation (Initiation) |
| In prokaryotic transcription, the transcription bubble consists of: | RNA polymerase, DNA template, and growing RNA transcript |
| Prokaryotic transcription ends when the _______________ | Transcription bubble encounters terminator sequences |
| In prokaryotes, transcription and translation ______________ | Occur at the same time |
| In Eukaryotic Transcription, RNA polymerase I → ________, RNA polymerase II → ______________, and RNA polymerase III → ________________ | Transcribes rRNA; transcribes mRNA and some snRNA; Transcribes tRNA and some small RNAs |
| In eukaryotes, the primary transcript must be modified by: | Addition of a 5’ cap Addition of a 3’ poly-A-tail Removal of introns (non-coding sequence) |
| What is a spliceosome? | The organelle responsible for removing introns and splicing exons together |
| What are introns? | Non-coding sequences |
| What are exons? | Sequences that will be translated |
| tRNA molecules carry amino acids to the ________ for __________ into a ___________ | Ribosomes, incorporation, polypeptide |
| Aninoacytl-tRNA synthetases ___ amino acids to the ________ arm of tRNA | Add, acceptor |
| The _________ loop contains __ nucleotides complementary to _____ codons | Anticodon, 3, mRNA |
| Ribosomes have multiple tRNA binding sites, those are: | P-site, A-site, E-site |
| What does P-site do? | Binds the tRNA attached to the growing peptide chain |
| What does A-site do? | Binds the tRNA carrying the next amino acid |
| What does E-site do? | Binds the tRNA that carried the last amino acid |
| What is wobble pairing? | Allows less rigorous pairings between 3’ bases of the codon and the 5’ base of the anticodon (resulting in fewer tRNAs to accommodate all codons) |
| Elongation continues until the __________ | Ribosome encounters a stop codon |
| Stop codons are recognized by release factors which ________________________ | Release the polypeptide from the ribosome |
| What is a point mutation? | Altercation of a single base |
| What are base substitution mutations? | Substitute one base for another |
| What are two types of base substitution mutations? | Transitions or transversions |
| What is a transition mutation? | A mutation that replaces a purine base with another purine (A to G; C to T) |
| What is a transversion mutation? | A mutation that replaces a purine with a pyrimidine (A to C; A to T) |
| What are nonsense mutations? | They create stop codons |
| What is a frameshift mutation? | They are caused by the insertion or deletion of a single base |
| What are missense mutations? | Occur when a base substitution changes a codon so that it codes for a different amino acid |
| What are chromosomal mutations? | They change the structure of a chromosome |
| What are the 4 types of chromosomal mutations? | Deletions Duplication Inversion Translocation |
| What are deletions? (chromosomal mutations) | Part of the chromosome is lost |
| What is duplication? (chromosomal mutations) | Part of the chromosome is copied |
| What is inversion? (chromosomal mutations) | Part of the chromosome in reverse order |
| What is translocation? (chromosomal mutations) | Part of the chromosome is moved to a new location |
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