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Bio 1110 Exam 2
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| all cells | Plasma membrane Cytosol Chromosomes Ribosomes |
| prokaryotes lack | nucleus membrane bound organelles |
| essential functions of cells | Reproduce with inheritance React to Stimuli Evolve Grow/Develop Metabolize Homeostasis |
| Surface area to volume ratio | Key determinant of rate of exchange between cell and outside A function of size and shape |
| nuclear envelope | 2 lipid bilayers Pore complex that allows for movement into and out of the nucleus |
| Nucleolus | lacks membrane Produces ribosomal RNA Transcribe rRNA --> ribosomes |
| Nucleus | contains most of the DNA in the form of Chromatin Surrounded by nuclear envelope Contains nucleolus |
| Storage of DNA | Packaged into chromosomes |
| Chromosomes | vary in number by species Consist of dense clusters of DNA wrapped around histone proteins |
| Ribosomes | made of RNA and proteins Lack membrane Create proteins from RNA Found in the cytosol (free) and the ER (bound) |
| Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) | connected to nuclear envelope Intra cellular membranes 2 sections - Smooth and Rough |
| Smooth ER | Synthesizes lipids Metabolism of carbohydrates Detoxification Stores Ca+ |
| Rough ER | Secrete proteins from Ribosomes Modify secretory proteins Produces membranes Distributes transport vesicles |
| Golgi apparatus | Flattened membranous sacs Modifies products from ER Produces many polysaccharides and starches in plants |
| Lysosomes | Membranous sac with enzymes Digest macromolecules A product created by rough ER and modified by the Golgi apparatus |
| Vacuoles | Made in ER with modifications from Golgi Transport solutes (Waste) Phagocytosis Different aqueous compound |
| Mitochondria | Found in nearly all eukaryotic cells including plants Most cells have many mitochondria Perform cellular respiration Create ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) using oxygen and carbohydrates |
| Chloroplast | Performs photosynthesis Contain chlorophyll and enzymes to produce sugars Plants, algae |
| Endosymbiotic theory | Pioneered by Lynn Margu Mitochondria and chloroplast were free living cells that we engulfed by phagocytosis Mitochondria first then chloroplasts |
| cytoskeleton | add structure Allow for mobility by using motor proteins Defined by thickness: Microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments |
| microtubules | control cilia and flagella |
| Plasma membrane | Phospholipid bilayer mosaic with proteins SA: V sets limits Proteins allow for selected movement of nutrients, oxygen, and waste products into and out of the cell |
| Cell Wall | Found in plants, some prokaryotes, fungi, and protists Protects cell, maintains shape, and prevents excessive uptake of water Made of cellulose fibers in plants Plant cells have 3 layers |
| Cell junctions | plasmodesmata Animal cell junctions |
| Animal cell junctions | Type junction, Desmosomes, gap |
| gap junction | channels that pass across adjacent cells Allow pretty free movement |
| Desmosomes | 2 cells close together Cells are connected by proteins |
| type junctions | press cells tightly together Prevents leakage of extracellular fluid |
| Phospholipid bilayer fluidity | Membranes must be appropriately fluid to work As temperatures cool, membranes switch from a fluid state to a solid state Steroids in plasma membrane buffers fluidity |
| Types of membrane proteins | peripheral and integral |
| peripheral membrane protein | bound to surface |
| integral membrane protein | pass into hydrophobic core Transmembrane span membrane |
| Membrane protein function | Transport Enzymatic activity Signal transduction Cell-Cell recognition Intercellular joining Attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix |
| Cell recognition proteins | glycoprotein/glycolipid |
| Glycoprotein/Glycolipid | Antibodies can use glycoproteins to determine self Synthesized in ER, modified in Golgi; transported to membrane in vesicle |
| Diffusion | Movement of particles into and out of a space following a concentration gradient Passive transport |
| Passive Transport | cells expend no energy Rate depends on permeability |
| Osmosis | Water balances concentration of solutes in solution Water bound to solute is not free and cannot cross boundary |
| Tonicity | ability of surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water Hypotonic: Animal - Lysed Plant - Turgid(normal) Isotonic: Animal - Normal Plant - flacid Hypertonic: Animal - Shriveled Plant - plasmolyzed |
| Electrochemical gradient | Membrane Potential Includes concentration and electrical gradient High Na+ outside cells Typically membrane potential is -60 to -70mv Potential energy in storage Energy released when ions diffuse |
| Facilitated diffusion | Form of passive transport Move solute down concentration gradient Transport proteins speed up diffusion across membrane Aquaporins Ion channels |
| Aquaporins | channel proteins for moving water |
| Io channels | move ions (may be gated that open in response to stimulus |
| Active transport | require energy Moves solute against the concentration gradient Facilitated by carrier proteins Usually comes from ATP hydrolysis |
| Cotransport | Active transport of solute indirectly drive transport of other substances Some goes up concentration gradient and something goes down |
| Bulk transport | Uses vesicles Exocytosis Endocytosis |
| Exocytosis | movement out of the cell by fusion of vesicles and membrane |
| Endocytosis | movement into the cell via vesicles formed in plasma membrane |
| Energy | the capacity to cause change |
| kinetic energy | associated with motion |
| thermal energy | kinetic energy of atom/molecules |
| potential energy | stored energy because of location/structure |
| chemical energy | potential energy available for release in chemical reactions |
| Law of Thermodynamics | Energy can be transferred and transformed, but cannot be created or destroyed Energy transfer is inefficient - lost as heat Entropy |
| Entropy | disorder and randomness |
| Free energy (G) | The energy of a system that can do work Change in free energy used to determine whether a process is spontaneous Change G = G final - G initial - Change in G = system becomes more stable + Change in G = system becomes less stable (Requires energy) |
| Exergonic | -Change in G system becomes more stable |
| Endergonic | + Change in G System becomes less stable (requires energy) |
| Activation energy | Energy must be input even into exergonic reactions for chemical reactions Initial energy needed to break bonds of reactants May be supplied by heat |
| metabolism | Describes all of organism's chemical reactions A defining principle of life Metabolic pathways detail a series of steps, to produce a product |
| Types of metabolic pathways | Catabolic Anabolic |
| Catabolic | release energy Converts complex molecules into simpler ones EX: respiration Breakdown of complex molecules used in generating energy |
| Anabolic | Consume energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones EX: Photosynthesis Production of complex biological molecules where energy is stored |
| ATP | Hydrolysis of ATP releases energy |
| Enzymes | Protein that acts as a catalyst Shape of protein specific to a particular reaction Reactant which binds to an enzyme called a substrate Location where enzyme bind is called active site Sometimes found in specific organelles or in membranes within cell |
| Cofactors | Non-protein helpers bind to enzyme or substrate Required for enzyme activity Organic cofactors called coenzymes Most key vitamins in diet are important because they are coenzymes |
| Enzyme inhibition | Chemicals that selectively inhibit activity of specific enzyme Toxins and poisons are irreversible enzyme inhibitors |
| Allosteric regulation | Regulatory molecule binds at one site to affect function at another Can activate or inhibit Allosterically regulated enzymes often have polypeptide subunits with several active sites |
| Enzyme activation | Cooperativity is another type of activation Binding to one substrate stabilizes active form |
| Feedback inhibition | End of product of metabolic pathway shuts down the pathway |
| Redox Reactions | Chemical Reactions that move electrons between reactants Substances that lose electrons are oxidized Substances that gain electrons are released |
| Electron donor | reducing agent |
| Electron acceptor | oxidizing agent |
| Cellular respiration | Can either be aerobic or anaerobic Catabolic process converting carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to energy (ATP and heat) Controlled - reactions occur in stages |
| NAD+ | A coenzyme that functions as an electron carrier NAD+ + 2e- and H+ = NADH Remove 2H from glucose to give 2e- and 1H+ to NAD+ |
| ATP sysnthesis | Most ATP generated in Oxidative phosphorylation Some ATP formed by substrate-level phosphorylation |
| Glycolysis | Occurs in Cytosol outside of mitochondria Oxidizes glucose to 2 pyruvate 10 steps 2 net ATP produced |
| Pyruvate oxidation | Pyruvate enters mitochondria Oxidizes carboxyl group releasing CO2 Reduces NAD+ to NADH Combines remaining portion of pyruvate with coenzyme A 2 Net ATP produced |
| Pyruvate | Acetyl coenzyme a (acetyl CoA) |
| Citric Acid Cyclye | Occurs in Mitochondria Acetyl CoA enters CO2, ATP, NADH, FADH2 exit Starts and ends with oxaloacetate Most steps involve transfer of electrons to electron carriers (NADH and FADH2) |
| Oxidative phosphorylation | NADH and FADH2 donate electrons to electron transport chain --> powers ATP synthesis ETC embedded in inner mitochondrial membrane Powers ATP synthesis through chemiosmosis |
| Electron Transport Chain | 4 protein complexes each with multiple steps (called electron carriers) Slowly releases energy Ends with H2O Pumps protons across membrane into intermembrane space |
| Cellular respiration | Most energy flows Glucose --> NADH --> ETC --> proton-motive force --> ATP 32 ATP total |
| Fermentation | absence of oxygen Still uses glycolysis Does not use ETC Glycolysis and NADH oxidization reactions Alcohol and lactic acid types |
| Alcohol Fermentation | releases CO2 from pyruvate Produces NAD+ and ethanol |
| Lactic Acid Fermentation | pyruvate --> lactate No release of CO2 |
| Autotrophs | Self feeder AKA produces or primary producers Create organic compounds to be used in respiration Photoautotrophs included |
| Photoautotrophs | Autotrophs that use light Perform photosynthesis |
| Photosynthesis | AKA carbon fixation Redox Reaction Endergonic reaction Requires light Produces oxygen as a waste product |
| Light | Provides the energy needed for anabolism One form of electromagnetic energy Composed of photons - massless particles that have a fixed quantity of energy Traves in waves - wavelength relative to energy |
| Capturing light | Reflected, transmitted, or absorbed Absorbed light excites electrons to higher orbital Excited electrons are unstable --> energy released as heat |
| Leaves | large surface area to collect sunlight |
| Mesophyll | issue in interior of leaf, rich in chloroplast |
| Chloroplasts | inner and outer membranes Thylakoids |
| Thylakoids | Folded sacs containing pigments Surrounded by stroma Collums called Granum |
| Chlorophyll a | key light capturing pigment used in light reactions CH3 |
| chlorophyll b | accessory pigment Differs from chlorophyll a in 1 functional group CHO |
| Carotenoids | other accessory pigments, especially important for protection (oranges and browns) |
| Porphyrin ring | light absorbing "head of molecule"; magnesium at the center of the atom |
| Photosystems | Reaction center surrounded by light harvesting complexes Energy transferred between pigment molecules until it reaches P680 (PSII) and P700(PSI) e- transferred to e- acceptor and ETC |
| Light harvesting complexes | pigment molecules bound to proteins |
| Calvin Cycle | Uses NADPH, CO2, and ATP to build sugars Occurs in stroma 3 phases Used in C3 photosynthesis |
| Phase 1: Carbon fixation | CO2 bound to RuBP (ribulose biphosphate |
Created by:
ericowen45