Bio 1110 Exam 2
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| all cells | Plasma membrane
Cytosol
Chromosomes
Ribosomes
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| prokaryotes lack | nucleus
membrane bound organelles
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| essential functions of cells | Reproduce with inheritance
React to Stimuli
Evolve
Grow/Develop
Metabolize
Homeostasis
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| Surface area to volume ratio | Key determinant of rate of exchange between cell and outside
A function of size and shape
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| nuclear envelope | 2 lipid bilayers
Pore complex that allows for movement into and out of the nucleus
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| Nucleolus | lacks membrane
Produces ribosomal RNA
Transcribe rRNA --> ribosomes
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| Nucleus | contains most of the DNA in the form of Chromatin
Surrounded by nuclear envelope
Contains nucleolus
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| Storage of DNA | Packaged into chromosomes
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| Chromosomes | vary in number by species
Consist of dense clusters of DNA wrapped around histone proteins
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| Ribosomes | made of RNA and proteins
Lack membrane
Create proteins from RNA
Found in the cytosol (free) and the ER (bound)
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| Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) | connected to nuclear envelope
Intra cellular membranes
2 sections - Smooth and Rough
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| Smooth ER | Synthesizes lipids
Metabolism of carbohydrates
Detoxification
Stores Ca+
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| Rough ER | Secrete proteins from Ribosomes
Modify secretory proteins
Produces membranes
Distributes transport vesicles
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| Golgi apparatus | Flattened membranous sacs
Modifies products from ER
Produces many polysaccharides and starches in plants
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| Lysosomes | Membranous sac with enzymes
Digest macromolecules
A product created by rough ER and modified by the Golgi apparatus
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| Vacuoles | Made in ER with modifications from Golgi
Transport solutes (Waste)
Phagocytosis
Different aqueous compound
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| Mitochondria | Found in nearly all eukaryotic cells including plants
Most cells have many mitochondria
Perform cellular respiration
Create ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) using oxygen and carbohydrates
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| Chloroplast | Performs photosynthesis
Contain chlorophyll and enzymes to produce sugars
Plants, algae
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| Endosymbiotic theory | Pioneered by Lynn Margu
Mitochondria and chloroplast were free living cells that we engulfed by phagocytosis
Mitochondria first then chloroplasts
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| cytoskeleton | add structure
Allow for mobility by using motor proteins
Defined by thickness: Microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments
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| microtubules | control cilia and flagella
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| Plasma membrane | Phospholipid bilayer mosaic with proteins
SA: V sets limits
Proteins allow for selected movement of nutrients, oxygen, and waste products into and out of the cell
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| Cell Wall | Found in plants, some prokaryotes, fungi, and protists
Protects cell, maintains shape, and prevents excessive uptake of water
Made of cellulose fibers in plants
Plant cells have 3 layers
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| Cell junctions | plasmodesmata
Animal cell junctions
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| Animal cell junctions | Type junction, Desmosomes, gap
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| gap junction | channels that pass across adjacent cells
Allow pretty free movement
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| Desmosomes | 2 cells close together
Cells are connected by proteins
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| type junctions | press cells tightly together
Prevents leakage of extracellular fluid
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| Phospholipid bilayer fluidity | Membranes must be appropriately fluid to work
As temperatures cool, membranes switch from a fluid state to a solid state
Steroids in plasma membrane buffers fluidity
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| Types of membrane proteins | peripheral and integral
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| peripheral membrane protein | bound to surface
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| integral membrane protein | pass into hydrophobic core
Transmembrane span membrane
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| Membrane protein function | Transport
Enzymatic activity
Signal transduction
Cell-Cell recognition
Intercellular joining
Attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix
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| Cell recognition proteins | glycoprotein/glycolipid
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| Glycoprotein/Glycolipid | Antibodies can use glycoproteins to determine self
Synthesized in ER, modified in Golgi; transported to membrane in vesicle
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| Diffusion | Movement of particles into and out of a space following a concentration gradient
Passive transport
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| Passive Transport | cells expend no energy
Rate depends on permeability
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| Osmosis | Water balances concentration of solutes in solution
Water bound to solute is not free and cannot cross boundary
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| Tonicity | ability of surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water
Hypotonic: Animal - Lysed Plant - Turgid(normal)
Isotonic: Animal - Normal Plant - flacid
Hypertonic: Animal - Shriveled Plant - plasmolyzed
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| Electrochemical gradient | Membrane Potential
Includes concentration and electrical gradient
High Na+ outside cells
Typically membrane potential is -60 to -70mv
Potential energy in storage
Energy released when ions diffuse
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| Facilitated diffusion | Form of passive transport
Move solute down concentration gradient
Transport proteins speed up diffusion across membrane
Aquaporins
Ion channels
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| Aquaporins | channel proteins for moving water
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| Io channels | move ions (may be gated that open in response to stimulus
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| Active transport | require energy
Moves solute against the concentration gradient
Facilitated by carrier proteins
Usually comes from ATP hydrolysis
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| Cotransport | Active transport of solute indirectly drive transport of other substances
Some goes up concentration gradient and something goes down
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| Bulk transport | Uses vesicles
Exocytosis
Endocytosis
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| Exocytosis | movement out of the cell by fusion of vesicles and membrane
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| Endocytosis | movement into the cell via vesicles formed in plasma membrane
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| Energy | the capacity to cause change
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| kinetic energy | associated with motion
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| thermal energy | kinetic energy of atom/molecules
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| potential energy | stored energy because of location/structure
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| chemical energy | potential energy available for release in chemical reactions
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| Law of Thermodynamics | Energy can be transferred and transformed, but cannot be created or destroyed
Energy transfer is inefficient - lost as heat
Entropy
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| Entropy | disorder and randomness
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| Free energy (G) | The energy of a system that can do work
Change in free energy used to determine whether a process is spontaneous
Change G = G final - G initial
- Change in G = system becomes more stable
+ Change in G = system becomes less stable (Requires energy)
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| Exergonic | -Change in G
system becomes more stable
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| Endergonic | + Change in G
System becomes less stable (requires energy)
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| Activation energy | Energy must be input even into exergonic reactions for chemical reactions
Initial energy needed to break bonds of reactants
May be supplied by heat
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| metabolism | Describes all of organism's chemical reactions
A defining principle of life
Metabolic pathways detail a series of steps, to produce a product
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| Types of metabolic pathways | Catabolic
Anabolic
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| Catabolic | release energy
Converts complex molecules into simpler ones
EX: respiration
Breakdown of complex molecules used in generating energy
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| Anabolic | Consume energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones
EX: Photosynthesis
Production of complex biological molecules where energy is stored
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| ATP | Hydrolysis of ATP releases energy
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| Enzymes | Protein that acts as a catalyst
Shape of protein specific to a particular reaction
Reactant which binds to an enzyme called a substrate
Location where enzyme bind is called active site
Sometimes found in specific organelles or in membranes within cell
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| Cofactors | Non-protein helpers bind to enzyme or substrate
Required for enzyme activity
Organic cofactors called coenzymes
Most key vitamins in diet are important because they are coenzymes
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| Enzyme inhibition | Chemicals that selectively inhibit activity of specific enzyme
Toxins and poisons are irreversible enzyme inhibitors
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| Allosteric regulation | Regulatory molecule binds at one site to affect function at another
Can activate or inhibit
Allosterically regulated enzymes often have polypeptide subunits with several active sites
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| Enzyme activation | Cooperativity is another type of activation
Binding to one substrate stabilizes active form
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| Feedback inhibition | End of product of metabolic pathway shuts down the pathway
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| Redox Reactions | Chemical Reactions that move electrons between reactants
Substances that lose electrons are oxidized
Substances that gain electrons are released
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| Electron donor | reducing agent
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| Electron acceptor | oxidizing agent
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| Cellular respiration | Can either be aerobic or anaerobic
Catabolic process converting carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to energy (ATP and heat)
Controlled - reactions occur in stages
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| NAD+ | A coenzyme that functions as an electron carrier
NAD+ + 2e- and H+ = NADH
Remove 2H from glucose to give 2e- and 1H+ to NAD+
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| ATP sysnthesis | Most ATP generated in Oxidative phosphorylation
Some ATP formed by substrate-level phosphorylation
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| Glycolysis | Occurs in Cytosol outside of mitochondria
Oxidizes glucose to 2 pyruvate
10 steps
2 net ATP produced
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| Pyruvate oxidation | Pyruvate enters mitochondria
Oxidizes carboxyl group releasing CO2
Reduces NAD+ to NADH
Combines remaining portion of pyruvate with coenzyme A
2 Net ATP produced
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| Pyruvate | Acetyl coenzyme a (acetyl CoA)
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| Citric Acid Cyclye | Occurs in Mitochondria
Acetyl CoA enters
CO2, ATP, NADH, FADH2 exit
Starts and ends with oxaloacetate
Most steps involve transfer of electrons to electron carriers (NADH and FADH2)
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| Oxidative phosphorylation | NADH and FADH2 donate electrons to electron transport chain --> powers ATP synthesis
ETC embedded in inner mitochondrial membrane
Powers ATP synthesis through chemiosmosis
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| Electron Transport Chain | 4 protein complexes each with multiple steps (called electron carriers)
Slowly releases energy
Ends with H2O
Pumps protons across membrane into intermembrane space
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| Cellular respiration | Most energy flows Glucose --> NADH --> ETC --> proton-motive force --> ATP
32 ATP total
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| Fermentation | absence of oxygen
Still uses glycolysis
Does not use ETC
Glycolysis and NADH oxidization reactions
Alcohol and lactic acid types
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| Alcohol Fermentation | releases CO2 from pyruvate
Produces NAD+ and ethanol
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| Lactic Acid Fermentation | pyruvate --> lactate
No release of CO2
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| Autotrophs | Self feeder
AKA produces or primary producers
Create organic compounds to be used in respiration
Photoautotrophs included
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| Photoautotrophs | Autotrophs that use light
Perform photosynthesis
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| Photosynthesis | AKA carbon fixation
Redox Reaction
Endergonic reaction
Requires light
Produces oxygen as a waste product
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| Light | Provides the energy needed for anabolism
One form of electromagnetic energy
Composed of photons - massless particles that have a fixed quantity of energy
Traves in waves - wavelength relative to energy
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| Capturing light | Reflected, transmitted, or absorbed
Absorbed light excites electrons to higher orbital
Excited electrons are unstable --> energy released as heat
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| Leaves | large surface area to collect sunlight
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| Mesophyll | issue in interior of leaf, rich in chloroplast
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| Chloroplasts | inner and outer membranes
Thylakoids
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| Thylakoids | Folded sacs containing pigments
Surrounded by stroma
Collums called Granum
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| Chlorophyll a | key light capturing pigment used in light reactions
CH3
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| chlorophyll b | accessory pigment
Differs from chlorophyll a in 1 functional group
CHO
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| Carotenoids | other accessory pigments, especially important for protection (oranges and browns)
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| Porphyrin ring | light absorbing "head of molecule"; magnesium at the center of the atom
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| Photosystems | Reaction center surrounded by light harvesting complexes
Energy transferred between pigment molecules until it reaches P680 (PSII) and P700(PSI)
e- transferred to e- acceptor and ETC
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| Light harvesting complexes | pigment molecules bound to proteins
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| Calvin Cycle | Uses NADPH, CO2, and ATP to build sugars
Occurs in stroma
3 phases
Used in C3 photosynthesis
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| Phase 1: Carbon fixation | CO2 bound to RuBP (ribulose biphosphate
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