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Bio 1110 Exam 2

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Created by: ericowen45

Term	Definition
all cells	Plasma membrane Cytosol Chromosomes Ribosomes
prokaryotes lack	nucleus membrane bound organelles
essential functions of cells	Reproduce with inheritance React to Stimuli Evolve Grow/Develop Metabolize Homeostasis
Surface area to volume ratio	Key determinant of rate of exchange between cell and outside A function of size and shape
nuclear envelope	2 lipid bilayers Pore complex that allows for movement into and out of the nucleus
Nucleolus	lacks membrane Produces ribosomal RNA Transcribe rRNA --> ribosomes
Nucleus	contains most of the DNA in the form of Chromatin Surrounded by nuclear envelope Contains nucleolus
Storage of DNA	Packaged into chromosomes
Chromosomes	vary in number by species Consist of dense clusters of DNA wrapped around histone proteins
Ribosomes	made of RNA and proteins Lack membrane Create proteins from RNA Found in the cytosol (free) and the ER (bound)
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)	connected to nuclear envelope Intra cellular membranes 2 sections - Smooth and Rough
Smooth ER	Synthesizes lipids Metabolism of carbohydrates Detoxification Stores Ca+
Rough ER	Secrete proteins from Ribosomes Modify secretory proteins Produces membranes Distributes transport vesicles
Golgi apparatus	Flattened membranous sacs Modifies products from ER Produces many polysaccharides and starches in plants
Lysosomes	Membranous sac with enzymes Digest macromolecules A product created by rough ER and modified by the Golgi apparatus
Vacuoles	Made in ER with modifications from Golgi Transport solutes (Waste) Phagocytosis Different aqueous compound
Mitochondria	Found in nearly all eukaryotic cells including plants Most cells have many mitochondria Perform cellular respiration Create ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) using oxygen and carbohydrates
Chloroplast	Performs photosynthesis Contain chlorophyll and enzymes to produce sugars Plants, algae
Endosymbiotic theory	Pioneered by Lynn Margu Mitochondria and chloroplast were free living cells that we engulfed by phagocytosis Mitochondria first then chloroplasts
cytoskeleton	add structure Allow for mobility by using motor proteins Defined by thickness: Microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments
microtubules	control cilia and flagella
Plasma membrane	Phospholipid bilayer mosaic with proteins SA: V sets limits Proteins allow for selected movement of nutrients, oxygen, and waste products into and out of the cell
Cell Wall	Found in plants, some prokaryotes, fungi, and protists Protects cell, maintains shape, and prevents excessive uptake of water Made of cellulose fibers in plants Plant cells have 3 layers
Cell junctions	plasmodesmata Animal cell junctions
Animal cell junctions	Type junction, Desmosomes, gap
gap junction	channels that pass across adjacent cells Allow pretty free movement
Desmosomes	2 cells close together Cells are connected by proteins
type junctions	press cells tightly together Prevents leakage of extracellular fluid
Phospholipid bilayer fluidity	Membranes must be appropriately fluid to work As temperatures cool, membranes switch from a fluid state to a solid state Steroids in plasma membrane buffers fluidity
Types of membrane proteins	peripheral and integral
peripheral membrane protein	bound to surface
integral membrane protein	pass into hydrophobic core Transmembrane span membrane
Membrane protein function	Transport Enzymatic activity Signal transduction Cell-Cell recognition Intercellular joining Attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix
Cell recognition proteins	glycoprotein/glycolipid
Glycoprotein/Glycolipid	Antibodies can use glycoproteins to determine self Synthesized in ER, modified in Golgi; transported to membrane in vesicle
Diffusion	Movement of particles into and out of a space following a concentration gradient Passive transport
Passive Transport	cells expend no energy Rate depends on permeability
Osmosis	Water balances concentration of solutes in solution Water bound to solute is not free and cannot cross boundary
Tonicity	ability of surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water Hypotonic: Animal - Lysed Plant - Turgid(normal) Isotonic: Animal - Normal Plant - flacid Hypertonic: Animal - Shriveled Plant - plasmolyzed
Electrochemical gradient	Membrane Potential Includes concentration and electrical gradient High Na+ outside cells Typically membrane potential is -60 to -70mv Potential energy in storage Energy released when ions diffuse
Facilitated diffusion	Form of passive transport Move solute down concentration gradient Transport proteins speed up diffusion across membrane Aquaporins Ion channels
Aquaporins	channel proteins for moving water
Io channels	move ions (may be gated that open in response to stimulus
Active transport	require energy Moves solute against the concentration gradient Facilitated by carrier proteins Usually comes from ATP hydrolysis
Cotransport	Active transport of solute indirectly drive transport of other substances Some goes up concentration gradient and something goes down
Bulk transport	Uses vesicles Exocytosis Endocytosis
Exocytosis	movement out of the cell by fusion of vesicles and membrane
Endocytosis	movement into the cell via vesicles formed in plasma membrane
Energy	the capacity to cause change
kinetic energy	associated with motion
thermal energy	kinetic energy of atom/molecules
potential energy	stored energy because of location/structure
chemical energy	potential energy available for release in chemical reactions
Law of Thermodynamics	Energy can be transferred and transformed, but cannot be created or destroyed Energy transfer is inefficient - lost as heat Entropy
Entropy	disorder and randomness
Free energy (G)	The energy of a system that can do work Change in free energy used to determine whether a process is spontaneous Change G = G final - G initial - Change in G = system becomes more stable + Change in G = system becomes less stable (Requires energy)
Exergonic	-Change in G system becomes more stable
Endergonic	+ Change in G System becomes less stable (requires energy)
Activation energy	Energy must be input even into exergonic reactions for chemical reactions Initial energy needed to break bonds of reactants May be supplied by heat
metabolism	Describes all of organism's chemical reactions A defining principle of life Metabolic pathways detail a series of steps, to produce a product
Types of metabolic pathways	Catabolic Anabolic
Catabolic	release energy Converts complex molecules into simpler ones EX: respiration Breakdown of complex molecules used in generating energy
Anabolic	Consume energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones EX: Photosynthesis Production of complex biological molecules where energy is stored
ATP	Hydrolysis of ATP releases energy
Enzymes	Protein that acts as a catalyst Shape of protein specific to a particular reaction Reactant which binds to an enzyme called a substrate Location where enzyme bind is called active site Sometimes found in specific organelles or in membranes within cell
Cofactors	Non-protein helpers bind to enzyme or substrate Required for enzyme activity Organic cofactors called coenzymes Most key vitamins in diet are important because they are coenzymes
Enzyme inhibition	Chemicals that selectively inhibit activity of specific enzyme Toxins and poisons are irreversible enzyme inhibitors
Allosteric regulation	Regulatory molecule binds at one site to affect function at another Can activate or inhibit Allosterically regulated enzymes often have polypeptide subunits with several active sites
Enzyme activation	Cooperativity is another type of activation Binding to one substrate stabilizes active form
Feedback inhibition	End of product of metabolic pathway shuts down the pathway
Redox Reactions	Chemical Reactions that move electrons between reactants Substances that lose electrons are oxidized Substances that gain electrons are released
Electron donor	reducing agent
Electron acceptor	oxidizing agent
Cellular respiration	Can either be aerobic or anaerobic Catabolic process converting carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to energy (ATP and heat) Controlled - reactions occur in stages
NAD+	A coenzyme that functions as an electron carrier NAD+ + 2e- and H+ = NADH Remove 2H from glucose to give 2e- and 1H+ to NAD+
ATP sysnthesis	Most ATP generated in Oxidative phosphorylation Some ATP formed by substrate-level phosphorylation
Glycolysis	Occurs in Cytosol outside of mitochondria Oxidizes glucose to 2 pyruvate 10 steps 2 net ATP produced
Pyruvate oxidation	Pyruvate enters mitochondria Oxidizes carboxyl group releasing CO2 Reduces NAD+ to NADH Combines remaining portion of pyruvate with coenzyme A 2 Net ATP produced
Pyruvate	Acetyl coenzyme a (acetyl CoA)
Citric Acid Cyclye	Occurs in Mitochondria Acetyl CoA enters CO2, ATP, NADH, FADH2 exit Starts and ends with oxaloacetate Most steps involve transfer of electrons to electron carriers (NADH and FADH2)
Oxidative phosphorylation	NADH and FADH2 donate electrons to electron transport chain --> powers ATP synthesis ETC embedded in inner mitochondrial membrane Powers ATP synthesis through chemiosmosis
Electron Transport Chain	4 protein complexes each with multiple steps (called electron carriers) Slowly releases energy Ends with H2O Pumps protons across membrane into intermembrane space
Cellular respiration	Most energy flows Glucose --> NADH --> ETC --> proton-motive force --> ATP 32 ATP total
Fermentation	absence of oxygen Still uses glycolysis Does not use ETC Glycolysis and NADH oxidization reactions Alcohol and lactic acid types
Alcohol Fermentation	releases CO2 from pyruvate Produces NAD+ and ethanol
Lactic Acid Fermentation	pyruvate --> lactate No release of CO2
Autotrophs	Self feeder AKA produces or primary producers Create organic compounds to be used in respiration Photoautotrophs included
Photoautotrophs	Autotrophs that use light Perform photosynthesis
Photosynthesis	AKA carbon fixation Redox Reaction Endergonic reaction Requires light Produces oxygen as a waste product
Light	Provides the energy needed for anabolism One form of electromagnetic energy Composed of photons - massless particles that have a fixed quantity of energy Traves in waves - wavelength relative to energy
Capturing light	Reflected, transmitted, or absorbed Absorbed light excites electrons to higher orbital Excited electrons are unstable --> energy released as heat
Leaves	large surface area to collect sunlight
Mesophyll	issue in interior of leaf, rich in chloroplast
Chloroplasts	inner and outer membranes Thylakoids
Thylakoids	Folded sacs containing pigments Surrounded by stroma Collums called Granum
Chlorophyll a	key light capturing pigment used in light reactions CH3
chlorophyll b	accessory pigment Differs from chlorophyll a in 1 functional group CHO
Carotenoids	other accessory pigments, especially important for protection (oranges and browns)
Porphyrin ring	light absorbing "head of molecule"; magnesium at the center of the atom
Photosystems	Reaction center surrounded by light harvesting complexes Energy transferred between pigment molecules until it reaches P680 (PSII) and P700(PSI) e- transferred to e- acceptor and ETC
Light harvesting complexes	pigment molecules bound to proteins
Calvin Cycle	Uses NADPH, CO2, and ATP to build sugars Occurs in stroma 3 phases Used in C3 photosynthesis
Phase 1: Carbon fixation	CO2 bound to RuBP (ribulose biphosphate