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12 Biology all terms
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Carcinogen | A substance or process leading to cancer formation |
| Centriole | Organelle with microtubules organizing nuclear division spindle |
| Checkpoint | Cell cycle stage ensuring completion before progression |
| Chlorophyll | Green pigment in chloroplasts trapping sunlight for energy |
| Cholesterol | Lipid crucial in animal cell membranes and hormone production |
| Chromatin | Material in cell nucleus during interphase, consisting of DNA |
| Crossing over | Genetic material exchange between sister chromatids |
| Cyclin | Protein component of MPF regulating cell cycle |
| Cytoskeleton | Cell's internal skeleton of tubules and filaments |
| DNA repair gene | Genes producing enzymes to fix faulty DNA sections |
| Endoplasmic reticulum | Cell membrane network aiding lipid and protein transport |
| Golgi body | Organelle packaging and secreting molecules out of cell |
| Haploid | Cell with half the normal chromosome number |
| Homologous chromosome | Chromosome pair with same genes at same location |
| Insulin | Pancreas hormone lowering blood glucose levels |
| Karyotype | Image showing paired total chromosomes |
| Lysosome | Animal cell organelle producing enzymes for digestion |
| Meiotic division | Cellular division in gonads forming gamete cells |
| Metabolic pathway | Series of enzyme-catalyzed biochemical reactions in cells |
| Mitochondrion | Organelle for aerobic respiration, known as cell powerhouse |
| Oncogene | Gene regulating cell division, mutation may cause cancer |
| Prokaryotic cell | Cell lacking membrane-bound organelles or much genetic material |
| Bacteria | Single-celled microorganisms; common example in biology |
| Blue-green algae | Photosynthetic bacteria; example of prokaryotic organisms |
| Prophase | Chromosomes condense, nuclear membrane disappears |
| Radiant (light) energy | Visible energy from the sun or artificial sources |
| Ribosome | Cytoplasm organelle vital for translation |
| Rough endoplasmic reticulum | ER membrane with attached ribosomes |
| Smooth endoplasmic reticulum | ER membrane without attached ribosomes |
| Somatic cell | Normal body cell |
| Stem cells | Unspecialised cells able to divide and produce various cell types |
| Telophase | Stage where two new cells are formed |
| Tumour suppression gene | Gene preventing cell division to avoid tumour formation |
| Urea | Nitrogen-containing waste product from protein breakdown |
| Vacuole | Membrane-bound structure for storage or transport in cells |
| Zygote | Cell formed by fusion of male and female gametes |
| Anaphase | Chromatids move to opposite ends of the cell |
| Apoptosis | Process leading to cell death |
| ATP/ADP cycle | Conversion of ATP to ADP for energy storage and release |
| Binary fission | Asexual reproduction method in prokaryotes |
| Diploid | Cells with full pairs of chromosomes |
| Fertilisation | Fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote |
| Ideal cell culturing conditions | Optimal environment for cell growth and maintenance |
| HeLa cells | Immortal tumour cells from Henrietta Lacks |
| Cell culture uses | Applications include vaccines, antibiotics testing, and more |
| Cell culture limitations | Challenges like toxin accumulation and limited division |
| G1 checkpoint | Cell cycle phase check for size, nutrients, and DNA damage |
| G2 checkpoint | Cell cycle phase check for DNA damage and replication |
| M checkpoint | Cell cycle phase check for chromosome attachment |
| Chemical factors controlling cell cycle | Hormones binding to target cells for regulation |
| Chemical factor examples | Include growth hormone and cytokinins |
| Growth factor examples | Proteins or hormones regulating cell growth |
| Signal transduction examples | Process of growth factor binding and gene stimulation |
| G1 checkpoint signal | Growth factors binding to cell membrane receptors |
| G2 checkpoint signal | Cdk binding to cyclin forming the MPF complex |
| MPF | Regulatory protein that promotes entry into mitosis |
| Metastasis | Spread of cancer cells from the original tumor to other parts of the body |
| Malignant Tumour | Invasive mass of tissue capable of spreading to other body parts |
| G0 | Cell cycle phase where cells are not dividing but still functioning |
| G1 | Cell cycle phase involving cell growth and protein synthesis |
| S | Cell cycle phase focused on DNA replication |
| G2 | Cell cycle phase preparing organelles for cell division |
| M | Cell cycle phase encompassing mitosis or nuclear division |
| Cytokinesis | Process of cytoplasm division at the end of cell division |
| Independent assortment | Random alignment of homologous chromosomes during meiosis |
| Genetic variation factors (meiosis) | Include crossing over, independent assortment, mutations, and random fertilization |
| Genetic variation factors (mitosis) | Primarily influenced by mutations |
| Diffusion | Molecule movement from high to low concentration in a fluid |
| Factors affecting diffusion rate | Involves temperature, viscosity, and particle size of the fluid |
| Equilibrium | State where internal and external concentrations are equal |
| Facilitated diffusion | Passive transport aided by specific carrier proteins or channels |
| Osmosis | Movement of solvent across a membrane from low to high solute concentration |
| Hypertonic solution effect | Causes cells to lose water and shrink |
| Isotonic solution effect | No net movement of water in or out of cells |
| Active transport | Energy-requiring movement of molecules against their concentration gradient |
| Endocytosis | Process of engulfing external substances into the cell |
| Exocytosis | Release of substances from the cell |
| Biotechnology | The modification of living organisms for human purposes, also called genetic engineering |
| Genetic code | The set of rules used by living cells to translate information encoded within genetic material into proteins |
| Plasmids | Simple loops of DNA in bacteria containing a couple of genes, separate from the large circular chromosome |
| Viruses | Non-living infectious agents containing DNA or RNA that can invade cells and make the cells express the genes on the viral DNA/RNA |
| DNA Probe | A short strand of DNA or RNA with a base sequence complementary to the target gene, used for locating specific genes |
| Restriction enzymes | Enzymes derived from bacteria that cut DNA at specific recognition sequences, often used to isolate genes of interest |
| Eco R1 | An example of a restriction enzyme, with the recognition sequence GAATTC |
| Sticky end | The little piece of single-stranded DNA left by the cut from a restriction enzyme. It's ready to bind with other sticky ends cut with the same restriction enzyme |
| Bacterial transformation | The process by which bacteria take up external DNA, often used to introduce new genes into bacteria |
| Electroporation | A method of introducing DNA into cells by applying an electric field, increasing the permeability of the cell membrane |
| Microinjection | A method of introducing DNA directly into the nucleus of a cell, often used in embryos to create transgenic organisms |
| Agrobacterium tumefaciens (Agrobacterium) | A soil bacterium that can infect plants and insert its Ti plasmid DNA into plant cells |
| Ti plasmid | Tumor-inducing plasmid found in Agrobacterium tumefaciens, used for introducing genes into plants |
| CRISPR-Cas9 | A bacterial immune system that can be repurposed for precise gene editing in other organisms |
| Cas9 | An enzyme produced by bacteria in the CRISPR system that cuts DNA at a specific location guided by RNA |
| Guide RNA | RNA that binds to Cas9 and leads it to the complementary sequence of a target DNA for cutting |
| De novo proteins | New proteins designed and created from scratch using computational methods and gene synthesis |
| Transgenic | term used to refer to an organism that contains genes from other organisms |
| Target gene | A gene intentionally inserted into a different organism |
| DNA hybridisation of a probe | Combination of separated DNA strands with the probe, by binding it to the complementary bases on one of the strands. |
| recognition sequence | A specific sequence of nucleotides at which a restriction enzyme cleaves a DNA molecule |
| DNA ligase | an enzyme that joins DNA fragments by making bonds between the sugar and phosphate in the sugar-phosphate backbone after the bases have bound complementary to one another with hydrogen bonds |
| Heat shock | Cells are heated to disrupt the cell membrane and allow plasmids to enter |
| Transformation | process in which one strain of bacteria is changed by a gene or genes from another organism |
| DNA Extraction | Cell membrane broken down by detergents. Protease removes the proteins associated with DNA. Ethanol makes DNA precipitate. Centrifuging concentrates the DNA. |
| PCR | polymerase chain reaction |
| Denaturation (PCR) | the first step of PCR when the DNA sample is heated to 94 to separate strands as hydrogen bonds |
| PCR in order | Denaturation. Anealing. Elongation. |
| Annealing (PCR) | DNA primers attach to opposite ends of the target sequence in the DNA at 40-60 degrees |
| Elongation (PCR) | A heat-tolerant DNA polymerase (Taq) copies the strands at 72 degrees |
| PCR Ingredients | DNA, primers, free nucleotides, Taq Polymerase |
| Taq polymerase | A DNA synthesis enzyme that can withstand the high temperatures of PCR |
| Primer | A short segment of DNA that acts as the starting point for a new strand |
| 92 degrees | Denaturation in PCR |
| 40-60 degrees | Annealing in PCR |
| 72 degrees | Elongation in PCR |
| DNA amplification | Creation of many copies of a segment of DNA by the polymerase chain reaction |
| Number of strands of DNA after 3 cycles if you started with 1 | 8 |
| (doubles every cycle) | |
| Gel Electrophoresis | A method for separation and analysis of biomacromolecules and their fragments, based on their size and charge. Smaller fragments travel further in a set time |
| Agarose gel | preferred gel for DNA electrophoresis |
| Negative charge | Used to separate DNA strands in gel electrophoresis |
| DNA Amplification | Creation of many copies of a segment of DNA by the polymerase chain reaction |
| Restriction enzyme | Enzyme that cuts DNA at a specific sequence of nucleotides |
| Relationship between DNA fragment size and distance moved in Gel electrophoresis | Small pieces travel faster and so go further in the same amount of time as the large pieces, spreading out |
| Chain termination method | method of DNA sequencing using labeled dideoxynucleotides to terminate DNA replication; it is also called the dideoxy method or the Sanger method |
| Sanger sequencing | Dideoxynucleotides halt DNA polymerization at each base, generating sequences of various lengths that encompass the entire original sequence. Terminated fragments are electrophoresed and the original sequence can be deduced. |
| Dideoxynucleotide | type of nucleotide used during DNA sequencing to terminate synthesis. *Special* ATGC with different coloured flourescent tags on each base type |
| capillary tube | A thin tube used for gel electrophoresis when sequencing DNA |
| Electropherogram | 4 colour data printout of the Sanger sequence with the fluorescent dyes |
| DNA sequencing | Determining the exact order of the base pairs in a segment of DNA. |
| short tandem repeats (STRs) | sections of a chromosome in which DNA sequences are repeated e.g.GATAGATAGATAGATA is 4 repeats of GATA |
| Used to make DNA "fingerprints" | |
| DNA fingerprint | a representation of parts of an individual's DNA that can be used to identify a person or sample of tissue or fluid |
| locus (pl. loci) | Location of a gene or short tandem repeat (STR) on a chromosome |
| DNA profile | A distinctive pattern of DNA fragments (e.g. STRs) that can be used to match a biological sample to an individual |
| Economic issues of collecting genetic information | Cost of storing and securing DNA database is high. Genetic testing can be expensive for patients |
| Cultural issues of collecting genetic information | May result in discrimination. Some cultures or religious groups may see it as unnatural. |
| Ethical issues of collecting genetic information | Data privacy: Employers and insurers could use to discriminate If you find out you have a rare genetic disorder, are you obliged to tell relatives? |
| Differentiation | process in which cells become specialized in structure and function |
| gene expression | process by which a gene produces its product and the product carries out its function |
| Transcription factor | A regulatory protein that binds to DNA and affects transcription of specific genes. |
| stem cell | unspecialized cell that can give rise to one or more types of specialized cells |
| Genotype | genetic makeup of an organism |
| Phenotype | the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment. |
| hormones | chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues |
| promotor region | portion of a gene that signals for RNA polymerase to start transcription |
| Methylation | addition of a methyl group to cytosine |
| epigenetics | the study of changes in organisms caused by modification of gene expression rather than alteration of the genetic code itself. |
| epigenome | The genome-wide distribution of epigenetic marks. |
| substitution mutation | Mutation in which a single base is replaced, potentially altering the gene product. |
| deletion mutation | a mutation in which one or more pairs of nucleotides are removed from a gene, causing a frame shift |
| insertion mutation | a mutation in which one or more nucleotides are added to a gene, causing a frame shift |
| frame shift | a genetic mutation caused by a deletion or insertion in a DNA sequence that shifts the way the sequence is read |
| mutagen | A chemical or physical agent that interacts with DNA and causes a mutation. AKA mutagenic chemical |
| ionizing radiation | may cause mutation e.g x-rays and UV |
| high temperatures (effect on DNA) | may cause mutation |
| viruses (effect on DNA) | may cause mutations |
| Mutagenic chemical (example) | cigarette smoke |
| Trisomy 21 | Also called Down Syndrome. Caused by an extra chromosome 21. |
| Polypeptide | A polymer (chain) of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. |
| Primary Structure | The first level of protein structure; the specific sequence of amino acids making up a polypeptide chain. |
| Secondary Structure | The second level of protein structure; the regular local patterns of alpha helix or Beta sheets of a polypeptide chain. |
| Tertiary Structure | The third level of protein structure; the overall, three-dimensional shape of a polypeptide due to interactions of the amino acids making up the chain. |
| Quaternary Structure | The fourth level of protein structure; the shape resulting from the association of two or more polypeptide subunits. |
| Alpha Helix | the spiral shape resulting from the coiling of a polypeptide in a protein's secondary structure |
| Beta Pleated Sheet | sheet-like secondary structure of proteins |
| Haemoglobin structure | large, globular protein made of four polypeptide chains, |
| Enzyme | A type of protein that speeds up (catalyses) a chemical reaction in a living thing |
| Receptor proteins | Proteins that transmit information in and out of cells. They bind complementary to signalling molecules like hormones |
| Hormone | Chemical messengers, often proteins, that bind complementary with receptors |
| hormone-receptor complex | a hormone bound to a receptor molecule |
| active site | a region on an enzyme that binds to a substrate during a reaction. |
| Substrate | reactant of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction |
| Product | A substance produced in a chemical reaction |
| Antibody | A molecule produced by the body that binds complementary to part of an invading virus or bacteria (antigen) and inactivates it |
| Complementary | Having a shape that fits with another molecule e.g active site of enzyme with a substrate, hormone with a receptor, antibody with an antigen |
| -ase | ends names of enzymes |
| synthesis reaction | an enzyme reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a new compound |
| breakdown reaction | an enzyme reaction when one reactant breaks down to form two or more products |
| lock-and-key model | The model of the enzyme that shows the substrate fitting perfectly into the active site |
| Induced fit model | Change in the shape of an enzyme's active site that enhances the fit between the active site and its substrate(s) |
| Denaturation | loss of normal shape of a protein due to heat or other factor |
| optimal temperature | Temperature at which an enzyme works the best |
| optimal pH | pH at which an enzyme works best |
| mutation | a random error in a gene that leads to loss of function in a protein because it is not the correct shape |
| competitive inhibitor | A substance that competes with substrate for active site because it has the same shape as the substrate |
| non-competitive inhibitor | A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by binding to a location remote from the active site, changing its shape so that it no longer binds to the substrate. |
| feedback inhibition | A method of metabolic control in which the end product of a metabolic pathway acts as an inhibitor of an enzyme within that pathway. |
| enzyme concentration | The greater concentration of the enzyme the greater the rate of reaction |
| substrate concentration | enzyme activity increases with this; more collision between substrate molecules and the enzyme |
| enzyme saturation | A point of substrate concentration at which all enzymes are engaged, and adding more substrate will not increase reaction rate. |
| activation energy | Energy needed to get a reaction started |
| How enzymes lower activation energy | Straining bonds in reactants to make it easier to achieve transition state. Positioning reactants together to facilitate bonding |
| Chromosomes | a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes. |
| Translation | Process by which mRNA is decoded and a protein is produced |
| Transcription | (genetics) the organic process whereby the DNA sequence in a gene is copied into mRNA |
| Protein | An organic compound that is made of one or more chains of amino acids |
| DNA | deoxyribonucleic acid, a self-replicating material present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes. It is the carrier of genetic information. |
| Ribosome | Cytoplasmic organelles at which proteins are synthesized. |
| amino acids | building blocks of proteins |
| Polypeptide | A polymer (chain) of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. |
| Nucleotide | monomer of nucleic acids made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base |
| Cytosine | The base that pairs with Guanine |
| Guanine | The base that pairs with Cytosine |
| Thymine | The base that pairs with Adenine in DNA |
| Adenine | The base that pairs with Thymine in DNA |
| Uracil | Nitrogen base that pairs with adenine in RNA. |
| Ribose | A five-carbon sugar present in RNA |
| Deoxyribose | A five-carbon sugar that is a component of DNA nucleotides |
| nitrogenous base | A molecule found in DNA and RNA that encodes genetic information in cells. |
| complementary base pairing | DNA, T pairs with A and G pairs with C RNA, U pairs with A and G pairs with C |
| double helix | Shape of DNA |
| Gene | A segment of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a specific trait |
| Introns | Noncoding segments of nucleic acid that lie between coding sequences. |
| Exons | Coding segments of eukaryotic DNA. |
| Splicing | removal of introns and rejoining of exons |
| mRNA | messenger RNA |
| mature mRNA | mRNA after splicing has occurred |
| nuclear pores | small holes in the nuclear membrane |
| rRNA | ribosomal RNA |
| tRNA | transfer RNA; type of RNA that carries amino acids to the ribosome |
| protein synthesis | the formation of proteins by using information contained in DNA and carried by mRNA |
| Codon | A specific sequence of three adjacent bases on a strand of DNA or RNA that provides genetic code information for a particular amino acid |
| Anticodon | group of three bases on a tRNA molecule that are complementary to an mRNA codon |
| Triplet | group of three bases on the template strand of DNA that are complementary to the triplet that occurs on mRNA |
| AUG | start codon (methionine) |
| 5' to 3' | The direction that polymerase adds free nucleotides to a growing chain |
| Circular Chromosome | Form of chromosome present in prokaryotes (e.g. bacteria) |
| Linear Chromosomes | Form of chromosome present in eukaryotes |
| Hydrogen bonds | The form of bond between complementary bases |
| Phosphate group | Binds with a sugar to make the backbone of DNA |
| Sugar-phosphate backbone | The alternating chain of sugar and phosphate to which the DNA and RNA nitrogenous bases are attached |
| Antiparallel | The opposite arrangement of the sugar-phosphate backbones in a DNA double helix. |
| Histone | protein molecule around which DNA is tightly coiled in chromatin |
| Unbound DNA | DNA in prokaryotes that is not wound around histones |
| cytosol | liquid portion of cytoplasm |
| Replication | Copying process by which a cell duplicates its DNA |
| Semi-conservative | Each half of an original DNA molecule serves as a template for a new strand, and the two new DNA molecules each have one old and one new strand. |
| Helicase | An enzyme that untwists the double helix of DNA at the replication forks. |
| DNA polymerase | Enzyme involved in DNA replication that joins individual nucleotides to produce a DNA molecule |
| RNA polymerase | enzyme that links together the growing chain of RNA nucleotides during transcription using a DNA strand as a template |
| Protein Synthesis | the formation of proteins by using information contained in DNA and carried by mRNA (Transcription + Splicing + Translation) |
| Amino acid | Building blocks of protein |
| 64 | number of possible codons |
| 20 | number of amino acids |
| degenerate code | multiple codons encode a single amino acid |
| Define species | A group of similar organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring |
| Life has existed for | more than 3.5 billion years |
| Evidence for early life | Prokaryotic fossils eg stromatolites |
| endosymbiotic theory | theory that eukaryotic cells formed from a symbiosis among several different prokaryotic organisms |
| Organelles that came about by endosymbiosis | Mitochondria and Chloroplasts |
| evidence for endosymbiosis | Mitochondria and Chlorplasts have double membrane, similar size, enzymes, ribosomes, DNA, undergo binary fission which is all similar to prokaryotes |
| Formation of first membranes | Occurs spontaneously in nature, lipids naturally form spheres |
| Protocells | An abiotic precursor of a living cell that had a membrane-like structure and that maintained an internal chemistry different from that of its surroundings. |
| RNA world hypothesis | Hypothesis that describes how the Earth may have been filled with RNA-based life before it became filled with the DNA-based life we see today. |
| Ribozymes | RNA molecules that function as enzymes |
| example of a ribozyme | ribosome |
| How RNA may have replicated | Cycles of heating and cooling in the environment: When cool, free bases could bind to make a new strand, when hot the strands would separate. Could have happened near volcanic vents. |
| ring species | populations that can interbreed with neighboring populations but not with populations separated by larger geographical distances |
| Morphological similarity | Another way to classify animals into species based on appearance, most useful with fossils where DNA evidence or evidence of breeding is impossible. |
| Biochemical similarity | closely related organisms have similar chemical makeups i.e DNA and Proteins. Used to define species. |
| Sharing a common gene pool | Another way to define species. Allows for ring species to be counted as a single species even though not every population could breed with another |
| Reproductive isolation | Separation of species or populations so that they cannot interbreed and produce fertile offspring |
| Reproductive barriers | serve to isolate the gene pools of species and prevent interbreeding |
| Pre-zygotic barriers | Pre-zygotic barriers are barriers that prevent fertilization, which could be geographic or behavioral differences, such as if two species reproduce at different times of the year, which is known as temporal isolation. |
| Post-zygotic barriers | prevent the hybrid zygote from developing into a viable, fertile adult |
| Temporal isolation | form of reproductive isolation in which two populations reproduce at different times |
| Behavioural isolation | when two populations are capable of interbreeding but have different behaviours such as courtship rituals or feeding. |
| Mechanical isolation | Morphological (shape) differences prevent successful mating |
| Gametic isolation | Sperm of one species may not be able to fertilize eggs of another species |
| Hybrid inviability | A postzygotic barrier in which hybrid zygotes fail to develop or to reach sexual maturity |
| Hybrid sterility | hybrid offspring mature but are sterile as adults |
| Mutation | a random error in gene replication that leads to a permanent change in DNA, the ultimate source of variation |
| accumulation of mutations over time | over time, an individual and a population develops more mutations. The greater the number of mutations that makes species different, the further back in time they diverged |
| Sources of variation in sexual reproduction | Crossing over, independent assortment, random fertilisation |
| Comparative genomics | compares genes in different organisms to see how those organisms are related |
| Sequencing of common proteins | Allows for comparison to determine how closely related two species are |
| Cytochrome C | A protein involved in the ETC that is common to all Eukaryotes. Comparing the sequence of Amino acids between species determines relatedness. |
| DNA hybridization | The DNA of two species is mixed and heated to separate strands. When it cools, some of the DNA hybridises. The temperature that it separates again determines how related they are. More closely related species separate at a higher temperature |
| DNA sequencing | Determining the exact order of the base pairs in a segment of DNA in order to compare species. A greater number of differences means more distantly related |
| phylogenetic tree | A family tree that shows the evolutionary relationships thought to exist among groups of organisms |
| phylogenetic tree node | Branching point. Point at which 2 species diverge from each other. Represents common ancestor. |
| phylogenetic tree branch | a line representing a population through time |
| Common ancestor | An ancestral species from which later species evolved |
| Phylogenetic tree - closely related | The branches of the populations of species have a common ancestor node that is close. E.g. Humans and Chimps |
| Phylogenetic tree - distantly related | The branches of the populations of species have a common ancestor that is far back. e.g Humans and Octopus |
| Gene pool | Combined genetic information of all the members of an interbreeding population |
| Natural selection | A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits. |
| Overproduction | organisms produce more offspring than can survive |
| Variation | Any difference between individuals of the same species. |
| Allele | Different forms of a gene |
| compete for resources | Since natural resources are limited, all organisms must compete to gather them |
| offspring | Product of reproduction, a new organism produced by one or more parents |
| selection pressure | the environmental factors that favour certain phenotypes (traits) |
| Industrial melanism | replacement of a light variety by a dark in an industrialized area |
| peppered moth | originally, the majority of these moths were light-colored, due to natural selection and then when the trees turned black due to the Industrial Revolution in England, the black colored moths came into the majority because of natural selection |
| antibiotic resistance | Resistance evolving rapidly in many species of prokaryotes due to overuse of antibiotics, |
| large gene pool | has a large genetic diversity which makes it more likely to survive change |
| population bottleneck | A period during which only a few individuals of a normally large population survive. |
| founder effect | change in allele frequencies as a result of the migration of a small subgroup of a population |
| genetic drift | A change in the allele frequency of a population as a result of chance events rather than natural selection. |
| geographical barriers | formed by canyons, mountain ranges; bodies of water, deserts, and other features organisms can't cross |
| gene flow | exchange of genes between populations |
| reproductive isolation | Separation of species or populations so that they cannot interbreed and produce fertile offspring |
| allopatric speciation | The formation of new species in populations that are geographically isolated from one another. |
| sympatric speciation | The formation of new species in populations that live in the same geographic area |
| Polyploidy | condition in which an organism has extra sets of chromosomes, a way that sympatric speciation can occur in plants |
| hexaploid | a cell having six chromosome sets or an organism composed of such cells |
| Total non-disjunction | When a full set of chromosomes does not separate during meiosis, can lead to polyploidy |
| convergent evolution | Process by which unrelated organisms independently evolve similarities when adapting to similar environments |
| analogous structures | Body parts that share a common function, but not structure |
| examples of convergent evolution | Sugar glider and Flying Squirrel Bats and Birds Shark and Dolphin |
| examples of analogous structures | bird wing and insect wing quills on a sea urchin, hedgehog, and cactus |
| divergent evolution | when two or more species sharing a common ancestor become more different over time (adaptive radiation) |
| adaptive radiation | evolution from a common ancestor of many species adapted to diverse environments (divergent evolution) |
| Community | All the different populations that live together in an area |
| primary succession | An ecological succession that begins in an area where no biotic community previously existed, there is no soil, eg lava fields |
| secondary succession | Succession following a disturbance that destroys a community without destroying the soil eg, fire, flood, storm, human activity |
| Examples of species with low genetic diversity | Tassie Devil and Cheetah |
| enhanced greenhouse effect | Rising global temperatures due to greenhouse gases being put into the atmosphere because of human activities |
| anthropogenic global warming | An increase in global temperature caused specifically by human activities. |
| Greenhouse gasses | Carbon Dioxide, Methane, Nitrous Oxide |
| Sources of Carbon dioxide | Burning Fossil Fuels |
| Sources of Methane | Rice Paddies, Sheep and Cows |
| Source of Nitrous oxide | Fertilizers |
| migration and competition | Results from global warming causing populations to mover where it is cooler |
| coral bleaching | A phenomenon in which algae inside corals die, causing the corals to turn white. |
| pollution | Release of harmful materials into the environment |
| Microplastics | Small plastic particles posing negative consequences to marine environments and wildlife. Clog up digestive tract and carry other toxins. |
| deforestation | The removal of trees faster than forests can replace themselves. |
| habitat destruction | The loss of a natural habitat |
| Biodiversity | the variety of life in the world or in a particular habitat or ecosystem. |
| Human-centred reasons for maintaining biodiversity | Food, fibres, structural materials, medicines |
| Ethical reasons for maintaining biodiversity | Right for all organisms to exist, Not being wasteful, Right for future generations to enjoy and spiritual and Religious reasons |
| Chemical or physical factors that limit the existence, growth, abundance, or distribution of an organism. | |
| Homeostasis | process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment |
| nervous system | brain, spinal cord, nerves |
| CNS (Central Nervous System) | brain and spinal cord |
| PNS (peripheral nervous system) | the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body |
| endocrine system | Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells. |
| sympathetic nervous system | a set of nerves that prepares the body for action in challenging or threatening situations |
| parasympathetic nervous system | a set of nerves that helps the body return to a normal resting state |
| sensory receptors | Specialized cells unique to each sense organ that respond to a particular form of sensory stimulus |
| Chemoreceptors | respond to chemicals e.g. spell, taste, osmoreceptors |
| Osmoreceptors | respond to the osmolarity of the blood (water homeostasis) |
| Thermoreceptors | respond to changes in temperature |
| Mechanoreceptors | respond to touch, pressure, vibration, stretch, and itch |
| Effector | an organ or cell that acts in response to a stimulus. e.g. muscle or gland |
| stimulus response model | Stimulus, receptor, control centre, effector, response |
| negative feedback | A primary mechanism of homeostasis, whereby a change in a physiological variable that is being monitored triggers a response that counteracts the initial fluctuation. |
| sensory neuron definition | neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord |
| Motor neuron definition | a neuron that sends an impulse to a muscle or gland, causing the muscle or gland to react |
| Interneuron definition | a neuron that carries nerve impulses from one neuron to another |
| synapse | the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron |
| synaptic cleft | The narrow gap that separates the presynaptic neuron from the postsynaptic cell. |
| neurotransmitter | chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons |
| direction of nerve impulse | from dendrite to Axon Terminal |
| Hormones | chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues |
| Endocrine system speed | slow |
| Nervous system speed | fast |
| Endocrine system duration | long lasting |
| Nervous impulse duration | very quick, almost instant |
| Target cells | cells that have receptors for a particular hormone |
| Hormones chemical structure | Proteins, peptides, amino acid derivatives and steroids |
| steroid hormones | Can pass through the membrane and bind to a receptor inside the cell |
| Non-steroid hormones | Cannot pass through membranes, bind to a protein receptor on the membrane |
| Insulin production location | beta cells of pancreas |
| Glucagon production location | alpha cells of pancreas |
| Insulin | A hormone produced by the pancreas or taken as a medication by many diabetics, reduces blood sugar levels |
| Glucagon | A protein hormone secreted by pancreatic endocrine cells that raises blood glucose levels; an antagonistic hormone to insulin. |
| Insulin target cells | most body cells |
| Glucagon target cells | liver cells |
| Type 1 diabetes | disorder in which the body cannot produce enough insulin because beta cells have been destroyed |
| TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone) | stimulates secretion of thyroid hormone |
| TSH production location | anterior pituitary gland |
| TRH (thyroxine releasing hormone) | Secreted by hypothalamus which triggers pituitary gland to secrete TSH |
| Effect of thyroxine on TSH production | Thyroxine inhibits TSH and TRH production |
| Thyroxine Target Cells | most body cells |
| Thyroxine | Also called thryoid hormone, it is produced and secreted by cells in the thyroid gland. it targets all cells in the body and increases overall body metabolism. |
| ADH (antidiuretic hormone) | Produced by Posterior lobe of Pituitary Gland. Targets kidneys for water conservation and blood vessels for blood pressure control |
| ADH action on collecting duct | Causes cells to produce more aquaporin to draw more water from the collecting duct back into the blood. |
| Osmoregulation | regulation of solute concentrations and water balance |
| nephron | functional unit of the kidney |
| glomerulus | small network of capillaries encased in the upper end of a nephron; where the filtration of blood takes place |
| filtrate in kidneys | squeezed out of the blood vessel in the glomerulus and collected in Bowman's capsule. Pretty much everything from the plasma except proteins which are too big |
| Reabsorbtion in the kidneys | Most of the filtrate (water, glucose, ions) is transported back into the blood except urea, which is waste |
| increased ADH | leads to concentrated urine, due to reabsorption of water, causing increased volume of body fluids |
| Decreased ADH | leads to dilute urine and drop in volume of body fluids |
| Adrenaline | A hormone released into the bloodstream in response to physical or mental stress |
| Adrenaline effects | Increases heart rate, blood flow to muscles and blood sugar level (due to break down of glycogen) |
| Negative feedback (body temperature) | When temperature rises above normal, you sweat until your temperature returns to normal. When temperature falls below normal, you shiver until your temperature returns to normal. |
Created by:
justineforrest
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