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bio 122 exam 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| all living organisms contain these 4 molecules | nucleic acid, lipids, carbohydrates and proteins |
| themes in biology | the hierarchy of life, cells, DNA, structure and function, energy flow, capturing energy , |
| emergent property | |
| hierarchy of life | lowest level being the atom, them molecule (ATP), then cell then tissue, organ, organism, population, community, biosphere. |
| heritable information | DNA |
| photosynthesis/ cellular respiration equation | C6H12O6 + 6 O2 —> 6CO2 +H20 + energy |
| capturing energy | photosynthetic organisms release oxygen - result: oxygen based metabolism of large cells and eventually multicellular organisms |
| regulated growth | key in homeostasis; feedback control (negative and positive) unregulated growth is cancer |
| the theory of evolution by natural selection rests on two observations | 1. high rate of reproduction 2. variation exists among individuals in a population |
| inference of evolution by natural selection | only some individuals will survive |
| how many domains are species classified into | 3; archea bacteria and eukarya |
| how many kingdoms are there? | 6; archea, bacteria, protista, plantar, fungi, and animal is the last 4 are all in eukarya domain |
| if earths history were a 30 day moth recorded human history would occupy…? | the last 30 seconds |
| life arose from nonlife | about 4 billion years ago from atoms and molecules; compartments enclosed molecules |
| evolution is NOT | to improve, directed, goal oriented it is just a fluky thing |
| cell theory (evolutionary milestone) | all organisms consist of cells all cells come from preexisting cells |
| central dogma (evolutionary milestone) | DNA to RNA and then RNA is used to code for a protein |
| increasingly diverse ways of capturing external energy for biologically useful reactions (evolutionary milestones) | like the bacteria that oxidizes (eats) rock! |
| eukaryotic cells evolved from prokaryotic cells (evolutionary milestone) | eukaryotic cells developed then into multicellular organisms whose cells became modified for specific functions *mitochondria and chloroplasts used to be their own organisms |
| evolution of sexual reproduction (evolutionary milestone) | improve ability of an organism to adapt to a changing environment. ex: Australian scaly cricket males can copulate 50 to 58 times withinmales can three to four hours with the same female |
| speciation (evolutionary milestone) | speciation resulted in the millions of species living on earth today there are about __ million species on earth that we have identified |
| 7 properties of life | ordered structure (cells, etc) reproduction energy use response to environment homeostasis growth, development, repair evolutionary adaptation |
| scientific enquiry (what do scientists ask) | how organisms work why they evolved to work that way **observation based |
| hypotheticodeductive approach to “how and why” | hypothesize predict test |
| induction | specific to general ex: “this organism is made of cells, therefore, all organisms are composed of cells“ |
| deduction | general to specific ex: “if all organisms are composed of cells(and humans are organisms), therefore, humans are composed of cells” |
| hypothesis vs theory | A hypothesis is an assumption made before any research has been done. It is formed so that it can be tested to see if it might be true. A theory is a principle formed to explain the things already shown in data. |
| when was the universe created | 13.6 billion years ago |
| when was the earth created | 4.6 billion years ago |
| when did life on earth begin | 4 billion years ago |
| hypothesis for how life began | life arose by the chemical evolution hypothesis |
| Chemical evolution hypothesis | prelife processes observed in biochemistry -heredity (genetic material) evolves |
| earths atmosphere at life’s origin | reducing atmosphere (no oxygen) and high energy (uv, lightening, heat) |
| result of earths early atmosphere | small molecules (monomers) essential to living systems form and polymerize |
| what was the first idea about where life evolved? | deep sea alkaline hydrothermal vents; likely not true; too diluted |
| better idea for where life first evolved | shallow bodies of water more concentrated, puddles can dry up a bit recent research suggests that the key molecules of life, and its core processes, can form only in relatively shallow bodies of water |
| why did they think life evolved in deep sea vents? | @ these vents warm fluids percolate up through the ocean floor. When they react to ocean water, they form tiny inorganic cells These cells produce energy the same way that living cells do today; by harnessing chemical gradients across a membrane |
| where did Deamer suggest early life evolved? | hot springs lipids would’ve formed protocells in hot waters as his earlier experiments indicated. The wet dry cycles on edges of the pools would have driven the formation and copying of nucleic acids like RNA vesicles could form (precurser) not cells |
| the water paradox | scientists who support the idea of a terrestrial beginning say it offers a solution to a long-recognized paradox: that although water is essential for life, it is also destructive to life’s core components |
| implications of the water paradox | cells solve the water paradox by limiting the free movement of water in their interiors, paradox indicates that life likely formed on land with some water, because if it was all water it would’ve been destroyed |
| thermophiles | ancestor of all living organisms heat loving makes sense that early earth was very warm; early life evolved in and loved this warmth |
| the 4 steps of chemical evolution | 1. production of small molecules 2. creation of a prebiotic soup 3. linkage 4. evolution of a self replicating molecule |
| 1. production of small molecules | containing reduced carbon… |
| 2. creation of a prebiotic soup | contains amino acids, lipid, and nitrogenous bases |
| 3. linkage | of these organic subunits to make the large organic molecules important in cells today (polymers made of monomers) |
| why is life based on and originated in water ? what about it? | it is a great solvent Water has an extremely high specific heat and heat of vaporization |
| what molecules dominated earths early atmosphere | CO2, N2, and H2O *H2, NH3, and CH4 were also present in sufficient amounts to form H2CO (formaldehyde) and HCN (hydrogen cyanide) * volcanic gases |
| miller- urey experiment | proof that the building blocks of life could be synthesized abiotically from gases, and introduced a new prebiotic chemistry framework through which to study the origin of life. |
| protobionts | aggregation of polymers; living cell precursers |
| the earliest protobionts likely had ____ based membranes | lipid |
| what was the first genetic material? | RNA because it had both enzyme function and information transfer function *some RNA today (ribosomes) have enzyme/catalytic function still |
| RNA to DNA | RNA- if within membrane- protected and more successful at replication! • DNA probably evolved after RNA-based life became surrounded by membranes that provided an environment in which DNA was stable. |
| definition of life | a self sustaining chemical system capable of Darwinian evolution 1994 NASA |
| first evidence of life? | fossil/rock has black specks of carbon grains…from cells? 4.1 billion years ago? |
| chemo fossil | certain mix of carbon isotopes |
| the oldest fossils contain… | consist of high levels of 12C relative to other heavier carbon isotopes like 13C LIVING organisms preferably take in this 12C from their surroundings as it is lighter |
| stromatolites | evidence for early life a bacteria on rock |
| the fossil record | The fossil record is the only source of direct evidence about what prehistoric organisms looked like, where they lived, and when they existed minimum age only |
| limitations of the fossil record | - habitat bias • taxonomic bias • temporal bias • abundance bias |
| cyanobacteria | first evolved photosynthesis...the ability to split water into hydrogen ions and O2, creating atmospheric O2. – O2 in the atmosphere made possible the evolution of aerobic metabolism – Ozone layer develops |
| why is life no longer evolving from nonlife | molecules are either oxidized or consumed by existing organisms |
| binomial nomenclature/ Linnaeus system | 1753 (plants) and 1758 (animals) Biological nomenclature: unique combination of generic and specific name. ●eg. Scarabaeus sacer |
| why classify organisms? | provide unique, universally used names ● explain relationships among species ● aid memory ●aid prediction |
| heirarchal classification/Linneaun classification from specific to widest | species, genera, families, orders, classes, phyla, kingdoms, and domains., life |
| the tree of life | The cell theory and the theory of evolution imply that all species are descended from a single common ancestor at the root of a family tree of all organisms—the tree of life. |
| how many kingdoms | 2; plants and animals according to Linnaeus currently there are 6 (as of 1977; before it was 5 starting at 1969) |
| characters of commonality | prokaryotic, eukaryotic, unicellular, multicellular, autotrophic, heterotropic, saprotrophic |
| prokaryotic | lack nuclear wall |
| eukaryotic | true nucleus |
| unicellular | made of 1 cell |
| multicellular | made of more than 1 cell |
| autotroph | make your own food |
| heterotrophic | get food elsewhere |
| saprotrophic | eat decaying stuff |
| kingdom monera | synonym for prokaryotic cell contains domains archea and bacteria aka includes all prokaryotes |
| kingdom protista | includes several groups of unicellular eukaryotes are multicellular and have some unicellular (algae are multicellular) |
| 6kingdoms | bacteria, archea, protista, plantae, fungi, animalia *protista, plantae, fungi and animalia are all in the domain eukarya |
| Carl Woese | studied small subunit rRNA (16S), a molecule found in all organisms, as a means for understanding the evolutionary relationships among all groups of organisms rrna-ribosome rna *findings had to do with nucleotides, A C G U |
| monophyletic | share 1 lineage/branch/a common ancestor |
| systematics | the study of the diversity of life Earth is a little known planet •2 million species described. •How many still undocumented: 5-100 million? •~20,000 new species/ year |
| future of systematics | A new era: •molecular methods •computer power |
| if life were to evolve all over again, would we eventually have humans again? | probably not; it was just a series of flukes and mutations that got us here world would also be unfamiliar history of life would not repeat itself |
| how have conditions on earth changed since life on earth | there is now O2 sea levels have gone down co2 levels up? Continent movement Ocean currents Volcanism Meteorites |
| how do we know ages (through fossils) | relative ages of rocks through rock layers (sedimentary) their relative positions and embedded fossils * when those fossils disappear they consider it the start of a new period |
| carbon 14 | half life of 5700 years to N14 can be used for things younger than 50000 years if there is enough there to date any organism |
| potassium 40 | can be used for very ancient events half life of 1.3 billion years to argon |
| example for radioisotope dating | |
| earths geological history is divided into | eras (eg. Cenozoic) and periods (eg. Cretaceous). boundaries between units based on differences between their fossil biotas |
| cenozoic era | 65 million years to present contains quaternary and tertiary periods |
| mesozoic | 250 to 65 million years contains cretaceous jurassic and triassic periods |
| paleozoic | 550 to 250 million years contains permian, carboniferous, devonian, silurian, ordovician, and cambrian periods |
| precambrian | 550 million to 4.6 billion years afo |
| what are the 5 mass extinctions | 1. at end of ordovician (paleozoic era ) period 2. at end of devonian (paleozoic) 3. at end of permian (paleozoic era) period 4. at end of triassic (mesozoic) 5. at end of cretaceous (mesozoic) |
| snowball earth 1 | 2.3 billion years ago a gigantic episode of glaciation that lasted 100 million years Caused by life!!! Photosynthetic microbes using CO2 so much - the planet was “plunged into the freezer” |
| snowball earth 2 | 700 million years ago a gigantic episode of glaciation Caused by life again!!! Evolution of the first multicellular plants using up CO2 -A second freezing episode ALSO: evolution of land plants - Snowball 3 (450 m.y.a.) |
| methane crisis | (3.7 b.y.a.): Methane-belching microbes filled the atmosphere with a hazy smog that all but blocked out the sun! |
| anaerobe crisis | (2.5 b.y.a.): Photosynthesizers poison atmosphere with oxygen! too much oxygen, they were producing too much and not using any |
| bacteria blooms | (periodic during global warming periods): Belching poisonous hydrogen sulphide gas into shallow seas– CAUSE OF PERMIAN EXTINCTION? |
| 3 mass extinctions that relate to carbon dioxide/climate crisis | methane crisis anaerobe crisis bacteria blooms |
| potentially the biggest ever extinction | permian extinction (end of paleozoic) |
| permian extinction | 90% life went extinct Prolonged land extinction, another fast marine CAUSE rise in temperature via high CO2 levels (caused by VOLCANIC ACTIVITY [ SIBERIAN TRAPS] and methane breakdown). –low O2 levels (15% to 10% [21% today] –Meteorite collisions? |
| siberian traps | |
| crurotarsans | crurotarsan- not a dinosaur • because their phylogeny tree is different; 2 different types of crocoadile like some small survivors are still on earth Climatic catastrophe caused by the mass eruptions led to extinction of them; dino competetors |
| deccan traps | |
| the fossil record | reveals broad patterns in the evolution of life. Fossils show that many evolutionary changes are gradual. Incomplete but getting better... |
| intact fossil | The pollen was preserved intact because no decomposition occurred |
| compression fossil | Sediments accumulated on top of the leaf and compressed it into a thin carbon-rich film. |
| cast fossil | The branch decomposed after it was buried. This left a hole that filled with dissolved minerals, faith- fully creating a cast of the original. |
| permineralized fossil | The wood decayed very slowly, allowing dissolved minerals to infiltrate the cells gradually and then harden into stone. |
| 3 important fossil beds | doushantuo (precambrian) edicaran (precambrian) burgess shales (cambrian) |
| Doushantuo Microfossils | 570–580 Ma (Precambrian) China sponges, cyanobacteria, multicellular algae,……………………animal embryos in early stages?????????? |
| Ediacara Hills | 544–565 Ma The fossil record for Precambrian times is fragmentary, but fossils from Australia show that many animals that evolved disappeared forever |
| Burgess Shales | + chinese fossil beds British Columbia All modern animal phyla present ... and more… cambrian |
| the cambrian explosion | Diversity exploded during the Cambrian period |
| Chancelloria | |
| Big Events in the Evolution of Vertebrates | Cranium and Backbone Jaws Lungs Limbs Hearing (internal ears) Dessication Resistant Skin Internal Fertilization Shelled Eggs Flight Endothermy (Warm Blooded) |
| tiktaalik | bridges gap between water animals and the existence of land animals |
| phylogeny | history of the descent of a group of organisms from their common ancestor |
| Phylogenetic or evolutionary tree | shows order or pattern of when different species or groups of species evolved. |
| how are phylogenetic trees constructed | fossils living organisms Trees constructed with analysis of characters or traits: •Characters can be morphological, molecular, behavioral... |
| morphological characteristics | relating to the branch of biology that deals with the form of living organisms, and with relationships between their structures. |
| apomorphy | the species has something its ancestor did not have; derived trait |
| plesiomorphy | ancestral trait is kept through evolution |
| homologous traits | good for making phylogenic trees similar due to common ancestor homologous traits may have different functions (because of divergent evolution) divergent evolution ex: bird v bat wing |
| analogous traits | seem the same but bad for phylogenetic trees because they are not from the same ancestor convergent evolution ex: bird v insect wing |
| convergent evolution | the process whereby distantly related organisms independently evolve similar traits to adapt to similar necessities. |
| molecular reconstructing of phylogenetic trees | Nucleic acid sequences or other molecular data can be important taxonomic data how similar dna is |
| parsimony | The simpliest explanation of evolution is the best. i.e., the tree that shows characters evolving the fewest number of times. |
| Bayesian analysis | a statistical paradigm that answers research questions about unknown parameters using probability statements |
| maximum likelihood analysis | seeks the best evolutionary tree by calculating probabilities for character changes at each alignment position based on appropriate models and parameters strictly molecular which mutation is most likely ?? |
| fun fact about phylogenetic trees | Structures in early developmental stages sometimes show evolutionary relationships not evident in adults. Notochord - present in all chordates (at least at some stage in their life) (Chordata = all vertebrates + a few other animals) |
| phonetics | (a.k.a. Numerical Taxonomy)– uses both apomorphies and plesiomorphies, i.e. groups based on overall similarity |
| evolutionary phylogenetic | uses only apomorphies. But recognizes monophyletic and non-monophyletic groups in classification |
| cladistics | uses only apomorphies. Recognizes only monophyletic groups in classification |
| classification systems | improve our ability to explain relationships among organisms. i.e. - reflect evolutionary history •memory aid. •provide unique, universally used names. |
| microevolution | evolution at the population level * Seen via a change in the frequency of alleles from one generation to the next |
| allele frequencies | measure the amount of genetic variation in a population. |
| genotype frequencies | show how a population’s genetic variation is distributed among its members. |
| does sexual reproduction effect frequency of alleles? | No, it’ just makes new combinations which natural selection then decides which stay |
| morphospecies | look different –practical. issue:physical variation in. a species—just because they look different doesn’t mean different species |
| hylogenetic/evolutionary | separate lineages so can include asexual spp |
| his def of species | A species is an independent monophyletic lineage (group) of organisms that differ from other groups in one or more characteristics and does not intergrade extensively with any other group. |
| why is it hard to find barriers between species | Speciation often a gradual process |
| does all evolutionary change result in new species? | Not all evolutionary changes result in new species! |
| pseudospeciation or anagenesis | a single lineage that changes over time but never forms additional species |
| cryptic species | *these are good species! ex:the birds that look the same but have different calls reproductive isolation but “no” morphological differences evolve |
| allopatric speciation | geographic barrier (spatial separation) this is why new species forms |
| sympatric speciation | within a population (no obvious spatial separation) - only a few good examples |
| parapatetic speciation | new niche found adjacent to original one |
| peripatric | small founding population enters isolated niche |
| coevolution | when 2 species evolve alongside each other? the process of reciprocal evolutionary change that occurs between pairs of species or among groups of species as they interact with one another |
| allopolyploid | 2 different species coming together allo=stranger |
| reproductive isolating mechanisms | prezygotic barriers - before mating •postzygotic barriers - after mating •in any sexual reproducing speci when allopatric populations become sympatric |
| prezygotic barriers | geographic isolation •temporal isolation •mechanical isolation - “lock and key” •copulation - no fit! •gametic isolation - no fusion |
| postzygotic barriers | hybrid death - sheep + goats. •hybrid zygote abnormality •hybrid infertility – mules [male donkey to a female horse results in a mule; breeding a male horse to a female donkey produces a hinny] •low hybrid viability •absence or sterility of one sex |
| hybrid zones | may form if barriers to gene exchange fail to develop during allopatry. |
| hybrids | separated populations rejoin without sufficient genetic differences accumulated - interbreed |
| species that hybridize must be: | similar genetically |
| speciation rates are influenced by: | *Speciation rates differ greatly among lineages. number of species, range sizes, behavior, environmental changes, generation times. |
| evolutionary radiation | fast evolution “explosion” of new species ●mammals at beginning of Cenozoic ●African rift fishes ●Hawaiian fruit flies - 500 species from one ancestor in 8 million years |
| gradualism | evolution is gradual, slow moving but consistent |
| punctuated equilibrium | equilibrium punctured by fast bouts of evolution |
| how many species on earth? | At least 4 - 5 million! (8-10 m?) Metazoa (animals), possibly 90% of species remain unknown?? |
| where is Most of the cellular metabolic diversity of life found? | in prokaryotes |
| arthropoda | the most successful animals on the planet! 3/4 of descirbed animals are arthropods -most arthropods are insects -most insects are beetles |
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