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Biology Final Exam
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Levels of organization | -atoms -molecules -cells -tissues -organ -organism -population -community -ecosystem -bioshpere |
| Atoms | -smallest unit of an element -has chemical properties |
| Molecules | -atoms bond with each other to form molecules |
| Cells | -simplest unit of life |
| Tissues | -cells of the same type associated with with each fother |
| Organs | -composed of two or more types of tissues |
| Organism | -all living things -classified as belonging to a species |
| Population | -organisms of the same species that occupy the same environment |
| Community | -populations of different species |
| Ecosystem | -formed by the interactions of a community of organism |
| Biosphere | -all the places on earth where living organisms exist |
| Bacteria | -Unicellular Prokaryote -inhabits is diverse |
| Archaea | -Unicellular Prokaryote -extreme environments -EX: hot springs |
| Eukarya | -complex nucleus -divided into four kingdoms -multicellular |
| Scientific method | -observation -hypothesis -experiments -data -accepted or rejected |
| Atom | -smallest functional units if matter -cannot be further broken down |
| Protons | -positive charge |
| Neutrons | -no charge |
| Electrons | -negative charge |
| Isotopes | -unstable -multiple forms -EX: carbon 14 |
| Polar | -unequal sharing of electrons |
| Nonpolar | -equal or nearly equal sharing of electrons |
| Hydrogen Bonds | -weak bonds -polar molecule is attracted to an electronegative atom |
| Ionic Bonds | -when electrons are transferred -when an atom ether gains or loses an electrons -EX: NaCI and Salt table |
| Properties of Water | -Solution -Solvent -Solute |
| 3 states of water | -Liquid -Solid -Gas |
| functions of water | -Surface tension -Adhesion -Cohesion -Provides support -participates in chemical reactions |
| acids | -ph below 7 |
| bases (alkaline) | -ph above 7 |
| ph | -neutral at 7 -can affect the rate of chemical reactions, ability of binding molecules, the ability of ions, and the shapes |
| Carbonhydrates | -organic -Monomers: monosaccharide and disaccharide -Polymer: Polysaccharide (starch) |
| Lipids | |
| Proteins | -monomers: amino acids -polymers: polypeptide -4 different types of structural |
| Nucleic acids | -Monomer: nucleotide -Polymers: DNA and RNA |
| Prokaryotes | -simple cell structure -no nucleus |
| Parts of the prokaryotic cell | -cytoplasm -plasma membrane -cell wall -appendages -nucleoid region -ribosomes -glycocalyx |
| Primary Structure | -amino acid sequences -determine by genes -EX: 124 Amino Acids |
| Secondary Structure | -folding into spirals -certain sequences |
| Tertiary Structure | -folding -complex shape |
| Quaternary Structure | -two or more polypeptides -may bind to each other to form afunctional protein |
| Two categories of prokaryotes | -Bacteria -Archaea |
| Nucleus | -area where most of the genetic material is organized and expressed |
| Droplet organelles | -Cells can become compartmentalized by liquid-liquid phase separation |
| cytoplasm | -keeps organelles in place |
| cytoskeleton | -protein filaments that provide shape and aid in movement |
| motor proteins | -source of movement for proteins -Uses ATP -three types of movement -Three domains: head, hinge, and tail |
| cilia | -shorter than flagella -tends to cover all or part of the cell's surface |
| flagella | -longer than cilia -presented singly or in pair |
| Rough ER | -site of protein sorting and secretion |
| Smooth ER | -site of detoxification -lipid synthesis |
| Golgi apparatus | -processing -protein sorting -secretion |
| lysosomes | -breaks down proteins, carbohydrates nucleic acidsm and lipids |
| Peroxisomes | -break down molecules by removing hydrogen or adding oxygen -breaks down things that are toxic to the cell |
| Plasma membrane | -acts as a wall between the cell and the extraceullular environment |
| Mitochondria | -powerhouse of the cell -primary role to make ATP |
| Chloroplasts | -captures light energy -makes glucose |
| Types of Membrane proteins | -integral membrane -peripheral membrane proteins |
| Transport mechanisms | -Passive -Active -Simple diffusion -Facilitated diffusion |
| Passive transport | -requires no energy -Simples diffusion -Facilitated diffusion |
| Active transport | -requires energy to transport -EX: primary and secondary transport |
| Proteins that carry out membrane transport | -Channels -gated channels -transporters -carriers |
| Endocytosis | -brings substances into the cell -three types - receptor-mediated, pinocytosis, and phagocytosis |
| Exocytosis | -excretes stuff from the inside to the outside of the cell |
| Metabolism | - the sum of all chemical reactions tat occur |
| Enzymes | -proteins catalysts |
| Function of enzymes | -lowers the activation energy of a chrmical reaction |
| inhibition of enzymes | -Competitive -noncompetitive -irreversible |
| Anabolic reactions | -biosynthetic reactions -requires energy inputs |
| catabolic reaction | -breakdown of reactants -used for recycling building block -energy stored in intermediates |
| regulation of metabolic pathways | -Gene regulation -Cellular regulation -biochemical regulation -regulation of the rate-limiting step |
| breakdown of proteins | -proteasome enzyme -Ubiquitin tags target protein to proteasome |
| glucose metabolism | -when glucose is broken down and some of the energy is lost -Makes ATP, NADH, and FADH2 |
| glycolysis | -breakdown of glucose into 2 pyruvates |
| breakdown of a pyruvate | -second metabolic pathway -transported into the mitochondrial matrix -broken down by pyruvate dehydrogenase |
| citric acid cycle | -third metabolic pathway -Acetyl is removed from Acetyl CoA and attached to oxaloacetate to form citric acid |
| oxidative phosphorylation | -fourth metabolic pathway -requires oxygen -high energy electrons removed from NADH and FADH2 to make ATP |
| What produces ATP | -cellular respiration |
| rate limiting steps | -citrate synthase -isocitrate dehydrogenase -a-ketoglutarate |
| Aerobic respiration | -in the presence of oxygen |
| anaerobic respiration | -lacks oxygen -fermentation -makes ATp via chemiosomsis |
| Cell signaling examples | -hormones |
| 3 stages of cell signing | -Receptor activation -signal transduction -cellular response |
| types of cell surface receptors | -enzyme linked receptors -g-coupled receptors -ligand-gated ion channels |
| Enzyme-linked | -protein kinases -extracellular domain binds ligand -intracellular domain becomes functional catalyst |
| g-protein linked | -GPCR -activated receptor binds to G protein |
| ligand-gated | -causes ion channels to open and ions to flow through the membrane -EX: acetylcholine receptor |
| intracellular receptors | -inside the cell -EX: Estrogn receptor |
| Extracellular matrix | -Strength -Structural support -Cell signaling -tissue organization |
| Types of cell junctions in animals | -Anchoring Junctions -Tight Junction -Gap Junctions |
| Types of tissues in animals | -epithelial -connective -nervous -muscle |
| Process that form tissue | -cell division -growth -differentiation -migration -apoptosis -formation connections |
| Proteins of extracellular matrix | -Fibronectin -Laminin -Collagen -Elastin |
| Polysaccharides of extracellular matrix | -GAGS -Chitin |
| functions of the extracellular matrix polysaccharides | -resist compression -form gel-like component |
| DNA | -formed from nucleotides -replication -transmission -variation -information |
| Components of DNA | -phosphate group -pentose sugar -nitrogenous base |
| components of nucleotides | -Purines and Pyrimidines -Adenine -Guanine -Cytosine -Thymine |
| Sugar-phosphate backbone | -Sugar carbons are 1′ to 5′ -Base attached to 1′ carbon on sugar -Phosphate attached to 5′ carbon on sugar |
| Chargoff's rules | -T pairs with A -C pairs with G |
| DNA replication | -The two parental strands separate and serve as template strands -New nucleotides must obey the AT/G C rule -End result: two new double helices with same base sequence as original |
| Origin of replication | -Where translation begins |
| Telomeres | -Series of short nucleotide sequences repeated at the ends of chromosomes in eukaryotes |
| Proteins involved in DNA replication | -DNA helicase -Single strand binding -topoisomerase -DNA primase -DNA polymerase -DNA ligase |
| Chromosome structure | D N A wrapped around histones to form nucleosome -D N A wrapped around an octomer of histone proteins (H2A, -H2B, H3, and H4) -Histone H1 binds to the linker region -Shortens length of D N A molecule 7-fold |
| Nucleosome | -D N A wrapped around an octomer of histone proteins (H2A, H2B, H3, and H4) -Histone H1 binds to the linker region -Shortens length of D N A molecule 7-fold |
| Loop domains | -Two different C T C Fs can bind to the DN A then bind to each other to form a loop -Protein called C C C T C binding factor (C T C F) binds to three regularly spaced repeats of the sequence C C C T C |
| Heterochromatin | -much more compact |
| euchromatin | -not as compact |
| transcription | -produces RNA copy of a gene -mRNA specifies the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide |
| types of RNA | -mRNA -tRNA -rRNA |
| Components of a protein-encoding gene | -Promoter -Terminator -Regulatory sequences |
| Stages of transcription in prokaryotes | -Initiation -Elongation -Termination |
| stages of translation in eukaryotes | -Initiation -Elongation Part 1 -Elongation Part 2 -Elongation Part 3 -Termination |
| Introns | -transcribed but not translated |
| Exons | -coding sequence found in mature mRNA |
| Splicing | -removal of introns |
| Spliceosome | -removal of introns precisely |
| RNA modification in eukaryotes | -Capping -Poly A tail |
| Alternative splicing | -occurs more than one way to produce different products -allows gene to encode two or more polypeptides |
| Self Splicing | -removal of its own intron |
| Translation | -Process of synthesizing specific polypeptide on a ribosome using the mR N A template |
| Components involved in translation | -mRNA -tRNA -Ribosome -translation factors |
| Codons | -set of 3 RN A nucleotides |
| Anticodons | -3 R N A nucleotide part of tR N A molecule that is complementary to the codon |
| translations in prokaryotes | -initiation, -elongation -termination -ribosome recycling. |
| transcription in eukaryotes | -initiation -elongation -termination |
| Functions of ncRNAs | -Involved in D N A replication, chromatin modification, transcription, translation, and genome defense -In most cells ncR N As are more abundant than mR N As -Abnormalities in ncR N As associated with a wide range of human diseases |
| HOTAIR | - acts as a scaffold for protein complexes that covalently modify histone proteins |
| miRNA | -are ncRNAs transcribed from genes normally found in the eukaryotic genome -naturally occurring -can affect translation and mRNA -can inhibit translation |
| siRNA | -come from exogenous sources – viruses that infect a cell or from researchers |
| SRP RNA | -recognizes the ER signal sequence |
| CRISPR-Cas system | -System in bacteria and archaea that defends against foreign invaders |
| Bacterial gene regulation | --lactose permease -b-galactosidase |
| Lac Operon | -contains genes for lactose metabolism |
| Inducible lac operon | -it is repressed |
| Trp operon | -codes for an enzymes the is required to make amino acid tryptophan |
| Repressible trp operon | -turned off |
| Regulations of eukaryotic gene expression | -activators -repressors -modulation -chromatin -DNA methylation |
| ways to change chromatin structure | -ATP- dependent chromatin-remodeling complexs |
| features of the promotor | -TATA box -Transcriptional start site -regulatory or response element |
| proteins required for eukaryotic transcription | -RNA polymerase II -General transcription factors -mediator |
| types of mutations | -silent mutation -missense mutation -nonsense mutation -frameshift mutation |
| Causes of mutation | -errors in DNA replications -toxic metabolic products -chemical agents |
| Germ | -give rise to gametes -Mutation can occur in sperm or egg cell, or in gamete progenitor cells -Passed on to offspring |
| Somatic cell mutations | -are all other body cells -Can occur early or late in development -Gives a genetic mosaic with patches of mutant tissue |
| three repair mechanisms | -direct repair -nucleotide excision repair -methyl-directed mismatch repair |
| Cancer-causing genes | -tumor suppressor genes -proto-oncogene |
| Proto-oncogenes | -Normal gene that, if mutated, can become an oncogene |
| Oncogenes | -mutant genes that causes a gene to be overactive, which leads to uncontrolled cell growth |
| Tumor-suppressor genes | -normally encoded protein that helps to prevent cancer -mutations can eliminate the function of these genes, leading to cancer |
| Checkpoint proteins | -check the integrity of the genome and prevent a cell from progressing past a certain point in the cell cycle |
| p53 | -is a transcription factor that acts as a sensor of D N A damage -It can promote D N A repair, prevent the progression through the cell cycle, and promote apoptosis. |
| Rb | - is a negative regulator that represses the transcription of genes required for D N A replication and cell division. |
| Cell cycle | -highly regulated series of events that prepares a cell and ultimately leads to cell division |
| Interphase | -time the cell makes preparations for cell division |
| G1 Phase | -first gap -accumulate molecular changes that promote progression through the cell cycle |
| S phase | -synthesis of D N A |
| G2 phase | -second gap -Cell synthesizes proteins needed for chromosome sorting and cell division; some growth may occur |
| Homologous chromosomes | -S phase -Chromosomes replicated to form a pair of sister chromatids -cell has twice as many chromatids as the number |
| where do cell cycle check points occur | -G1 checkpoint -G2 checkpoint -Metaphase checkpoint |
| Mitosis | -distributing duplicated chromosomes so that each daughter cell receives the same complement of chromosomes -Prophase -Prometaphase -Metaphase -Anaphase -Telophase -produces two diploid daughter cells that are identical |
| Prophase | -Nuclear membrane dissociates into small vesicles; nucleolus no longer visible |
| Prometaphase | -Nuclear envelope completely fragments -Mitotic spindle is fully formed during this phase -Spindle fibers interact with sister chromatids -Two kinetochores on each pair of sister chromatids are attached to kinetochore microtubules from opposite poles |
| Metaphase | -Pairs of sister chromatids are aligned along a plane halfway between the poles called the metaphase plate |
| Anaphase | -The two poles move away from each other as overlapping polar microtubules lengthen and push against each other |
| Telophase | -Nuclear membranes now re-form to produce two separate nuclei |
| Mitotic spindle | - is responsible for organizing and sorting the chromosomes during mitosis -centrosomes |
| Cytokinesis | -division of the cytoplasm into two daughter cells |
| Meiosis | -Meiosis is the process by which haploid cells are produced from a cell that was originally diploid = reduction division |
| What occurs in meiosis | -crossing over |
| types of chromosomal mutations | -inversions -translocations -simple translocation -reciprocal translocation |
| changes in chromosome number | -Euploid -Polyploid -Aneuploidy |
| nondisjunction | -Chromosomes do not sort properly during cell division -During meiosis can produce aneuploid gametes (too many or too few chromosomes) |
| Reasons why Mendel choose the pea plant | -genetic variation -self-feralization -hybridization |
| Genotype | -The genetic composition |
| Phenotype | -Physical or behavioral characteristics that are the result of gene expression |
| Laws of segregation | -can be explained by the pairing and segregation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis |
| Independent assortment | -The alleles of different genes assort independently of each other during the process that gives rise to gametes. |
| X-linked inheritance | -Genes found on the X but not the Y are X-linked genes -sex-link disorders |
| Codominance | -Multiple alleles – three or more variants in a population -Phenotype depends on which two alleles are inherited |
| Incomplete dominance | -Heterozygote shows intermediate phenotype between corresponding homozygotes |
| Hardy-Weinburg Equilibrium | -Predicts that allele and genotype frequencies will remain the same |
| What are the 5 conditions of Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium | -No new mutations occur -No natural selection occurs -The population is so large that allele frequencies do not change due to random chance -No migration occurs between different populations -Random mating occurs |
| Evolutionary mechanisms | -that alter the prevalence of an allele or genotype -(natural selection, genetic drift, migration, nonrandom mating) |
| Natural selction | -Process in which beneficial traits that are heritable become more common in successive generations |
| Patterns of natural selection | -Directional selection -stabilizing selection -disruptive/diversifying selection |
| Sexual selection | -Directed at certain traits of sexually reproducing species that make it more likely for individuals to find or choose a mate and/or engage in successful mating |
| Patterns of sexual selection | -intrasexual selection -intersexual selection |
| genetic drift | -Changes allelic frequency due to random chance -Random events unrelated to fitness -Favors either loss or fixation of an allele -Faster in smaller populations |
| bottleneck | -Population reduced dramatically and then rebuilds -Randomly eliminates members without regard to genotype |
| founder effect | -Small group of individuals separates from a larger population and establishes a new colony -Allele frequencies in founding population may differ markedly from original population |
| types of nonrandom mating | -assortative/disassortative mating -inbreeding |
| Central vacuoles | - in planets -for storage and support |
| contractile vacuoles | - expelling water |
| Phagocytic | -white blood cells -degradation |
| Direct intercellular signaling | -pass from one cell to another |
| Contact-dependent signaling | -binds to the surface of the cell -signals cells coming into contact with them |
| Autocrine signaling | -cells secrete signaling molecules that bind their own cell surface -also to neighboring cells |
| Paracrine signaling | -secretes a molecule that does not affect the cell -affects nearby cells |
| Endocrine Signaling | -hormones -travels long distances |
| Euploid | -chromosomes that occur in one or more complete sets |
| Polyploid | -3 or more sets of chromosomes |
| Aneuploidy | -Abnormal number of a particular chromosome |
| Trisomic | -Normal 2 copies of a chromosome plus a 3rd |
| Monosomic | -Missing one of normal copies of a chromosome |
| Balanced polymorphism | -Two or more alleles are kept in balance and maintained in a population over the course of many generations |
| silent mutation | -does not alter the amino acid sequence |
| Missense mutation | -changes a single amino acid in a polypeptide |
| Nonsense mutation | -change from a normal codon to a stop codon |
| Frameshift mutation | -addition or deletion of nucleotides |
| Direct repair | -repair enzyme recognizes an incorrect structure in the DNA |
| Nucleotide excision repair | -portion of DNA strand containing an abnormal nucleotide -removed or replaced |
| Methyl-directed mismatch repair | -base pair mismatch is detected -dna is removed and replaced |
| Causes of Proto-oncogene | -missense mutations -gene amplifications -chromosomal translocations -retroviral insertions |
| LacP | -lac promotor |
| LacZ | -breaks down lactose |
| LacY | -lactose prermease |
| LacA | -attached acetyle group |
| lacl gene | -lac repressor |
| Transcriptional start site | -where transcription begin |
| regulatory or response elements | -enchancers and silencers -Recognized by regulatory proteins that control initiation of transcription |
| Facultative heterochromatin | -silenced in one cell |
| constitutive heterochromatin | -all cell types -found in centromere and telomeres |
| centromere | -holds chromosomes together |
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maddie_5
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