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Biology Exam 3
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Extracellular Matrix | -Animal cells secrete ECM that helps support and organize cells |
| Major Macromolecules | -Proteins -Polysaccharides |
| Important roles of Extracellular Matrix | -Strength and structural support -Tissue organization -Cell Signaling |
| Fibronectin | -Connects cells to the ECM and helps to organize components in the ECM -Adhesive |
| Laminin | -Connects cells to the ECM and helps to organize components in the ECM -Adhesive |
| Collagen | -Forms large fibers and interconnected fibrous networks in ECM -Provides tensile strength -Strutural |
| Elastin | -Forms elastic fibers in the ECM that can stretch and recoil -Structural |
| Proteins that make up the Extracellular Matrix | -proteins -polysaccharides |
| Roles of the Extracellular Matrix | -strength and structural support -tissue organization -cell signaling |
| Adherins Junction | -connect cells to each other via cadherins -bind to actin filaments in they cytosol |
| Desmosomes | -connected to intermediate filaments |
| hemidesmosomes | -connect cells to the ECM via integrins -interact with intermediate filaments |
| focal adhesions | -connects cells to the ECM via integrins -bind to actin filaments in the cytosol |
| Tight Junctions | -forms tight seal between adjacent cells -prevents material from leaking between cells -made by transmembrane proteins |
| Gap Junctions | |
| Anchoring Junctions | |
| Middle lamella | -found in plants -in between adjacent cell walls -cement the cell walls together -first layer to form when cells are dividing -Rich in protein |
| plasmodesmata | |
| Tissue | -group of cells having a similar structure or function |
| Organ | -collection of two or more tissues that perform a specific function or set functions |
| Growth | -cells increase in size |
| Differentiation | -cells can become specialized in function due to gene regulation |
| Migration | -during embryonic development, cells will move to their appropriate location; does not occur in plants |
| formation of connections | -allow cells to maintain physical contact and communicate with each other |
| Connective tissue | -support body or connect tissues; rich in ECM |
| nervous tissue | -receives, or connect tissues -rich ECM |
| muscle tissue | -generates force that facilitates movement |
| epithelial tissue | -cell joined together forming continuous sheets to cover or line body surfaces -top layer -skin |
| Dermal tissue | -forms a covering on various parts of the plants |
| epidermis tissue | -newly made dermal tissue on the surface of leaves, stems, and roots |
| Ground tissue | -most of plant's body and carries out photosynthesis, storage of carbohydrates and support |
| Vascular tissue | -complex tissue composed of cells that are interconnected and form conducting vessels for water nutrients |
| Transmembrane proteins (tight junctions) | -Occludin -Claudin |
| Occludin and Claudin function | -bind to each to form a tight seal -not mechanically strong, not bound to cytoskeleton |
| Primary Cell Wall | |
| Secondary Cell Wall | |
| Synthesis and Assembly of Collagen | |
| Cell Adhesion Molecules (CAMs) | |
| Integrins | |
| Extracellular Domain | |
| Intracellular Domain | |
| Four Criteria for Genetic Material | -information -replication -transmission -variation |
| Chromosomes | -carries the genetic information -DNA associated with an array of different proteins into a complex structure |
| Late 1800s | -biochemical basis of heredity postulated |
| 1920s-1940s | -expected the protein portion of chromosomes would turn out to be the genetic material |
| Federick Griffith | -late 1920s -working with streptococcus pneumoniae bacteria -mouse experiment -founded transformation |
| Transformation | -genetic material had been transferred into a different type of bacteria |
| Levels of DNA structure | -nucleotides -strand -double helix -chromosomes -genome |
| stand | -a linear polymer strand of DNA |
| Genome | -the complete complement of genetic material in an organism |
| DNA | -formed from nucleotides -composed of three components: -phosphate group -pentose sugar -nitrogenous base |
| Nitrogenous base | -Purines -Pyrimidines |
| Purines | -A to G |
| Pyrimidines | -C to T |
| RNA | -Ribonucleic Acid -formed from nucleotides -composed of three components (same as dna) |
| RNA Pyrimidines | -C to U |
| Nucleotide Numbering system | - Sugar carbons are 1' to 5' -Based attached to 1' carbon on sugar -Phosphate attached to 5' carbon on sugar |
| DNA Helicase | -binds to DNA and travels 5' to 3' using ATP to separate strand and move fork forward -separates double-stranded DNA into single strands |
| DNA topoisomerase | -relieves additional coiling ahead of replication fork -removed tightened coil ahead of the replication |
| Single-strand binding proteins | -keep parental strands open to act as templates -binds to single stranded DNA |
| DNA polmerase | -covalently links nucleotides -only works 5' to 3' direction of DNA synthesis -requires primer to get started |
| DNA primase | -makes the primer for RNA -Primer is removed and replaced with DNA later -synthesize short RNA primers |
| deoxynucleoside triphosphates | -free nucleotides with three phosphate groups |
| Leading Strand | -DNA synthesized as one long molecule -Make primase a single RNA primers at origin of replication |
| Lagging Strand | -DNA synthesized 5' to 3' but as Okazaki Fragments -Okazaki consists of RNA fragments |
| Leading and Lagging | -RNA primers are removed by DNA polymerase I and replaced with DNA -DNA ligase joins adjacent DNA fragments |
| DNA polymerase | -synthesizes DNA in the leading and lagging strands -removes RNA primers -fills in the gaps |
| Three mechanisms for accuracy | -Hydrogen Bonding between A and T, and between G and C -Active site of DNA polymerase is unlikely to form bonds if pairs are mismatched -DNA polymerase can proofread to remove mismatch pairs=DNA polymerase backs up digests linkages |
| Cell Division | -When cells prepare to divide -chromosomes become even more compacted |
| Two types of cell division | -euchromatin -heterochromatin |
| euchromatin | -not as compacted |
| heterochromatin | -much more compact |
| Messenger RNA (mRNA) | -what is being produced -sequence of nucleotides |
| Regions within the Gene | -Promoter -Terminator -Regulatory sequences |
| 3 stages of Transcription | -Initiation -Elongation -termination |
| Initiation | - -end is where double helix begins to open up |
| Elongation | -reading every nucleotide in the transcribed region -Makes new RNA molecule in 5' to 3' direction - |
| Termination | -RNA polymerase stops the sequence -Double helix reforms |
| 3 stages of transcription (eukaryotic) | -initiation -terminator -elongation |
| Eukaryotic Transcription | -requires a protein -three forms of RNA polymerase |
| RNA Polymerase 2 | -responsible for reading and transcribing of mRNA |
| RNA 1 and 3 | -transcribes for genes that specify non-coding RNA -EX: rRNA and tRNA |
| Exons | -codes for the mRNA |
| Introns | -transcribes but not translated |
| Splicing | -cuts out the introns -cuts the unimportant parts out |
| Mutation | -changes in the genetic material that can be passed from to cell -or from parent to offspring |
| One gene, one enzyme | -Many proteins do not function as enzymes -some proteins are composed of two or more polypeptides -some genes encode more than one polypeptide -some genes produce non-codingthat do not specify the amino acid sequence |
| Transcription | -produces RNA copy of a gene -mRNA specifies the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide |
| Translation | -process of synthesizing polypeptide on a ribosome using the mRNA template -DNA---RNA----Protein |
| Bacteria | -transcription and translation occur in the cytoplasm |
| Eukaryotes | -transcription occurs in the nucleus -translation occurs in the cytosol -has an intervening step called RNA processing where pre-RNA is processed into active mRNA |
| Types of RNA | -mRNA -tRNA -rRNA |
| Gene | -organized unit of based sequences |
| mRNA | -specifies amino acid sequence of a protein |
| tRNA | -translated mRNA into amino acids |
| rRNA | -is a part of ribosomes |
| Promotor | -sequences of DNA that controls when and where transcription will begin |
| Terminator | -specifies the end of transcription |
| Regulatory Sequences | -sites for the binding of regulatory proteins -some proteins enhance the rate of transcription whereas other inhibit it |
| Stages of Transcription | -Initiation -Elongation -Termination |
| RNA polymerase II | -transcribes mRNA -requires five general transcription factors |
| RNA polymerase I and III | -transcribe genes that specify non-coding RNAs -rRNA and tRNA |
| Introns | -transcribed but not translated |
| Exons | -coding sequence found in mature rRNA |
| Splicing | -RNA modification in eukaryotes -removal of introns and other modifications |
| Capping | -needed for mRNA to exit nucleus and bind ribosomes -helps prevent degradation -7-methylguanosine attached to 5' end of pre-mRNA |
| Spliceosome | -removes introns -composed of snRNPs (small nuclear RNA+ proteins) |
| Poly A tail | -increases stability and lifespan in cytosol -aids in export of mRNA from the nucleus -100 to 200 adenine nucleotides added to 3' end |
| Alternative splicing | -occurs more than one way to produce different products -allows a single gene to encode two or more polypeptides with different amino acid sequences |
| self-splicing | -rRNA and tRNA -RNA catalyzes the removal of its own intron |
| Genetic code | -specifies relationship between bases in mRNA and amino acids in polypeptide |
| Codons | -mRNA is read in groups of three nucleotide bases aka ____ -specify a particular amino acid, start, and stop codons |
| Degenerate code | -more than one codon can specify the same amino acid |
| Anticodon | -3 RNA nucleotide part of tRNA molecule that is complementary to the codon -allows binding of tRNA to mRNA codon |
| Bacterial mRNA | -has 5' ribosome-binding site -start codon usually AUG -Stop codon UAA, UAG, or UGA |
| tRNA structure | -cloverleaf structure -Anticodon found in middle stem loop -acceptor stem at 3' end for amino acid binding -tRNA molecules encoded by different genes |
| Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase | -catalyzes attachment of amino acids to tRNA -one for each of 20 amino acids -reactions result in tRNA with amino acids attached |
| Ribosomes | -site where translation takes place |
| Ribosome structure | -mRNA lies on the surface of 30S subunit -p site -a site -e site |
| P site | -peptidyl site |
| A site | -aminoacyl site |
| E site | -exit site |
| Scaffold | bind to multiple components such as proteins -acts as scaffold for formation of a complex |
| Guide | -guide one molecule to a specific location in the cell |
| Alternation of protein function or stability | -binds to a protein -can affect ability of protein to be a catalyst -ability of the protein to bind other molecules -protein stability |
| Ribozyme | |
| Blocker | |
| Decoy | |
| HOTAIR | |
| miRNAS | |
| siRNAS | |
| RISC | |
| SRP RNA | |
| CRISPR-CAS | |
| Bacteriophages | |
| Crispr gene | |
| Adaptation | |
| Expression | |
| Interference | |
| ncRNAS | |
| Cancer | |
| Neurological disorders | |
| Cardiovascular disease | |
| ncRNAs in plants | |
| Constitutive genes | -have essentially constant levels of expression in all conditions over time |
| Prokaryotic gene regulation | -responds to changes in the environment -Lactose permease and B-galactosidase is made -E. coli can use many types of sugars as food |
| Lactose permease | -transports lactose into the cell |
| b-galactosidase | -breaks down lactose |
| Gene regulation in eukaryotes | -all of the organism's cells contain the same genome -express different proteomes due to gene regulation -produces different cell types in an organism |
| Hemoglobin | -delvers oxygen to the cells of a mammal's body -gene regulations determine which type it is |
| Developmental genes regulation | |
| Levels of Bacterial gene regulation | -transciption -translation -post translation -gene---mRNA---protein---functional protein |
| levels of eukaryotic gene regulation | -transcription -RNA modification -translation -post translation -gene---pre-mRNA---mRNA---protein---function protein |
| Repressors | -inhibit transcription |
| Activators | -increases the rate of transcription |
| Small effector molecules | -binds to regulatory transcription factor -causes conformational change -determines whether or not regulatory transcription factor can bind DNA |
| Operon | -bacteria: is a set of two or more genes under transcriptional control of one promoter -transcribed into mRNA as polycistronic mRNA -encodes more than one protein -allows coordinated regulation of a group of genes with a common function |
| Lactose metabolism | |
| lacP | -lac promoter |
| lacZ | -B-galactosidase brakes down lactose |
| lacY | -lactose permease transport lactose into cytoplasm |
| lacA | -galactosidase transacetylase attaches acetyl group to lactose -lactose analogues to prevent toxic buildup in the cytoplasm |
| Operator (lacO) | -regulatory sites -provides binding site for repressor protein |
| Cap site | -second regulatory site -activator protein binding site |
| lacl gene | -codes for lac repressor -important for the regulation of the lac operon -has its own promotor |
| two regulatory sites | =Operator -Cap site |
| Absent of lactose | -Lac repressor binds to nucleotides of lac operator -prevents RNA polymerase from transcribbing lacZ, lacY, and lacA -RNA polymerase can bind but no move forward -repressors bind to the operator and inhibits transcription |
| Presence of lactose | -binding of allolactose to the lac repressor causes conformational changes -prevents the lac respressor from binding to the operator site -allolactose is made inside the cell -permits the transcription of the lac operon |
| Catabolite repression | -inhibits the use of other energy source -glucose represses lac operon -Glucose inhibits production of cAMP and prevents binding of CAP to RNA |
| Cap (catabolite activator protein) | -an activator of the lac operon -operon is turned off when CAP is not bound -cAMP-CAP binds to the CAP site near the lac promoter -increases transcription |
| Lactose high, glucose high | -lac operon is shut off -Glucose uptake causes cAMP levels to drop -CAP does not activate transcription -Bacterium uses one sugar at a time (glucose) -transcription is low due to CAP binding |
| lactose high, glucose low | - lac operon is turned on -Allolactose levels rise and prevent lac repressor from binding to operator -CAP is bound to the CAP site -Bacterium uses alctose -transcription of lac operin is very high |
| lactose low, glucose high or low | -lac operon is shut off -lac pressor prevents transcription of lac operon |
| trp operon | -required to make amino acid tryptophan -regulated by a repressor protein |
| Tryptophan | |
| Corepressor | |
| DNA methylation | -usually inhibits transcription |
| Chromatin | -activator proteins promote loosening up of the region in the chromosome where a gene is located -makes it easier for RNA polymerase to transcribe the gene |
| Modulation | -small effector molecules -protein-protein interactions -covalent modifications can modulate activators and repressor |
| TATA box | -5' to 3' -25 base pairs upstream from transcriptional start site -determines precise starting point for transcription |
| Transcriptional start site | -where transcription begins |
| regulatory or response elements | -regulatory proteins that control initiation of transcription -enhancers and silencers |
| Mediator | -large protein complex |
| Preinitiation complex | |
| GTS | |
| RNA polymerase II in proteins | |
| 3 ways to control RNA polymerase II | |
| Changes in chromatin structure | |
| ATP-dependent chromatin-remodeling complex | |
| Affect chromatin structure in three ways | |
| CpG islands | |
| Heterochromatin | |
| Constitutive heterochromatin | |
| Facultative heterochromatin | |
| Faster regulation | |
| Benefits of regulation of RNA modification | |
| Alternative splicing or pre-mRNAs | |
| Allows same genes to make different proteins in |
Created by:
maddie_5
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