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Bio Unit 4 Terms
Human Biology 2 - Unit 4 Terms - Sophia
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| AIDS | Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, AIDS is caused by the HIV virus. A person with AIDS has a very low helper T-cell count. This makes it difficult for the immune system to coordinate responses against infections. |
| Active Immunity | Also known as specific immunity, active immunity is carried out by T & B lymphocytes and reacts to specific antigens of cells; active immunity also produces memory cells to target the same pathogen if we are ever exposed to it again. |
| Adaptive Immunity | Also known as specific immunity, adaptive immunity is carried out by T & B lymphocytes and reacts to specific antigens of cells; adaptive immunity also produces memory cells to target the same pathogen if we are ever exposed to it again. |
| Agglutination | The high class term for clumping. |
| Allergy | A hypersensitivity (overreaction) to environmental substances called allergens. An allergic response is carried out by the release of histamine and is basically an inflammatory response. |
| Alveoli | Microscopic air sacs located in the peripheral parts of the lungs that consist of simple squamous epithelial tissue. Alveoli and pulmonary capillaries create the respiratory membrane where gas exchange occurs between atmospheric air and blood. |
| Anaphylactic Shock | Shock is a general term to describe a severe drop in blood pressure; anaphylactic shock is caused by an extreme allergic reaction that causes blood volume and blood pressure to drop as a result of excessive histamine release and inflammation. |
| Anemia | A group of disorders that affect a red blood cell’s ability to transport gases. |
| Aneurysm | A weak spot on an artery that bursts. |
| Angiogenin | A substance secreted by cancerous cells that encourages blood vessels to grow around the tumor to provide necessary oxygen and nutrients for growth. |
| Antibodies | Specific protein markers that are created by the immune system. Antibodies bind and react to specific antigens. Antibodies are created by B cells during humoral immunity. |
| Antibody | Specific protein markers that are created by the immune system for binding and reacting to specific antigens. |
| Antibody-Mediated Immune Response | Also known as B lymphocytes, B cell carry out a version of specific immunity called humoral immunity. During humoral immunity, B cells produce and secrete antibodies into our body tissue cavities. |
| Antigen | A unique marker on the surface of a cell that can stimulate an immune response. |
| Antigens | A unique chemical marker found on the surface of cells that have the potential to stimulate an immune response; antigens are basically the identity marker of cells for the immune system to see. |
| Aorta | An artery that delivers blood to the systemic circuit. |
| Aortic Bodies | Located within the aorta, aortic bodies are clusters of cells that include chemoreceptors. These chemoreceptors detect changes in blood pH, and are in constant communication with the brainstem via the vagus nerve. |
| Aortic Valve | A valve that allows blood to flow from the left ventricle to the aorta while preventing backflow. |
| Apoptosis | Programmed death of a cell. Apoptosis can be caused by chemicals that T cells release. |
| Arteries | A large diameter blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart. |
| Arterioles | A smaller diameter blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart. |
| Arteriosclerosis | The hardening of arteries. |
| Asthma | A condition in which bronchioles narrow suddenly, causing breathing troubles. Asthma can be triggered by allergens, stress, exercise, or respiratory infections. |
| Atrioventricular Node (AV Node) | Known as the “gateway” between the atria and ventricles; the AV node slows down the rate at which the action potential travels from the atria to the ventricles allowing for more filling time. |
| Atrioventricular Valve | A valve that allows blood to flow from the atrium to the ventricle while preventing backflow of blood. |
| Atrium | The right and left upper chambers of the heart. |
| Autoimmunity | When the immune system recognizes a self-antigen as being foreign and attacks it; when the immune system attacks our own tissues/organs. |
| B Cells | Also known as B lymphocytes, B cell carry out a version of specific immunity called humoral immunity. During humoral immunity, B cells produce and secrete antibodies into our body tissue cavities. |
| Balloon Angioplasty | Treatment of blocked arteries that involves inflating a balloon inside an artery to condense a plaque and thereby increase blood flow. |
| Basophils | White blood cells that store the chemicals heparin and histamine and are used to promote inflammation (example: allergies). Basophils are distinguished by their s-shaped nucleus and large granules. |
| Blood Cells | A component of blood that includes both red and white blood cells, each of which play a different role in the body. |
| Blood Pressure | The pressure that blood exerts on the wall of a vessel that is measured in units of millimeters of mercury (mmHg). Blood pressure is the driving force that creates blood flow throughout the vessels of the body. |
| Blood Vessels | Tubes that carry blood to and from the heart and body. |
| Booster Shot | Not every vaccine has lifelong effects; when antibody levels decline after a certain period of time, a booster shot is given to bring them back up again. |
| Bronchi | The branching tubes of the bronchial tree that distribute air throughout the lungs. All bronchial tubes (except the bronchioles) are constantly held open by cartilage to maintain an open airway. |
| Bronchioles | Small tubes of the bronchial tree that connect the bronchi to the alveolar air sacs; bronchioles lack cartilage but contain walls of smooth muscle that is used to rapidly adjust airflow into and out of the lungs. |
| Bronchitis | Inflammation of the mucous membranes within the bronchial tubes. Bronchitis can be caused by a virus or air pollutants. |
| Cancer | A condition caused by the uncontrolled division of cells. |
| Capillaries | The smallest blood vessel that acts as a zone of diffusion between blood and tissues. |
| Carbaminohemoglobin | A term used to describe when carbon dioxide is bound to hemoglobin; something to note is that oxygen and carbon dioxide do not compete with each other when binding to hemoglobin; carbon dioxide + hemoglobin = carbaminohemoglobin. |
| Carcinogen | A substance that can cause cancer. |
| Cardiac Conduction System | A system of specialized cells and nodes in the heart that rhythmically pace the heart and time when the chambers contract. It includes the sinoatrial node (SA node) and the atrioventricular node (AV node). |
| Cardiac Cycle | All of the events that occur during one heart beat that drive blood flow into and out of the heart; a series of well-timed pressure and volume changes within the chambers of the heart that drive blood flow throughout its chambers. |
| Cardiovascular System | A body system composed of the heart and blood vessels that acts to transport blood throughout the body. |
| Carotid Bodies | Located within the carotid artery, carotid bodies are clusters of cells, including chemoreceptors. These chemoreceptors are sensitive to changes in blood pH, and are in constant communication with the brainstem via the glossopharyngeal nerve. |
| Cell Count | The number of red blood cells in a microliter of blood. |
| Cell-Mediated Immunity | A type of adaptive immunity in which T cells respond to target cells that have been infected by pathogens. |
| Chemoreceptors | A sensory receptor that detects chemicals dissolved in liquids or gases. |
| Chemotherapy | A form of treatment for cancer patients in which chemicals are used to try to kill cancerous cells. |
| Cilia | Hair-like projections found on the surface of various types of cells that play a role in locomotion. |
| Complement System | A group of normally inactive proteins in the blood that are activated by antibodies during an infection; complement proteins join together to form a membrane attack complex that pierces cell membranes, causing damage to the pathogens that are invading us. |
| Coronary Bypass | Treatment of blocked arteries that involves a section of the artery being stitched to the aorta and a section of a vessel below the blocked area. |
| Cytotoxic T Cells | A type of T cell that works to kill target cells. |
| Dendritic Cells | A type of phagocyte found in the skin; dendritic cells can also phagocytize (eat) a pathogen or part of a pathogen and display it to a B cell in order to activate it. |
| Diaphragm | The prime mover/agonist muscle of breathing found covering the entire lower circumference of the rib cage. |
| Diastole | A term used to describe a decrease in pressure and work; measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg). |
| Diastolic Pressure | One of the two measures of blood pressure, diastolic pressure is a lower pressure that occurs when the left ventricle of the heart is in diastole (resting) which causes the pressure in the systemic arteries to drop. |
| Embolism | A circulating mass in the blood. Examples: fatty embolus or an air embolus. |
| Embolus | A clot that forms at the site of a plaque then floats into the bloodstream. |
| Emphysema | Frequent inflammation of the lungs causes airways to become stiffened, and alveoli to break down. This leads to insufficient gas exchange. |
| Endothelium | A single layer of cells that forms the lining of various body cavities, including blood vessels. |
| Eosinophils | White blood cells that attack parasites that enter the body (example: worms) and are distinguished by their bi-lobed nucleus. |
| Epiglottis | Covers the larynx during swallowing to prevent food or liquids from entering the lungs. |
| Erythrocytes | Erythrocytes are red blood cells whose main role is to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from body tissues. |
| Erythropoietin | When blood oxygen levels are low, the kidneys secrete more erythropoietin. This hormone stimulates the bone marrow to produce more erythrocytes. |
| Exhalation | The events that occur to drive air flow out of the lungs; when the diaphragm relaxes and the thoracic cage collapses putting a positive pressure on the lungs, driving air out. |
| Globin | A term used to describe the tertiary protein structure of hemoglobin. Not to be confused with goblin, which is a scary creature. |
| Granulocytes | A term used to classify white blood cells by their visible granules in their cytoplasm. |
| HIV | A virus that causes the disease known as AIDS. |
| Heart | A muscular pump that pumps blood throughout the body. |
| Heart Attack | Damage to the heart muscle, which leads to decreased blood flow and decreased oxygen to the heart. |
| Helper T Cells | A type of T cell that works to boost adaptive immune responses. |
| Heme Group | The iron group in the center of globular proteins in a hemoglobin molecule; therefore one hemoglobin molecule has four heme groups associated to it. The heme group is what oxygen binds to when red blood cells are circulating oxygen throughout the body. |
| Hemoglobin | A quaternary pigment protein found on red blood cells, hemoglobin is primarily used to transport oxygen and some carbon dioxide throughout the blood. |
| Hemophilia | A group of hereditary disorders that prevent clots from being formed. |
| Hemostasis | The process of controlling/stopping bleeding from a broken vessel; platelets are the main component of hemostasis by working with the plasma protein fibrinogen to form a blood clot. |
| High Cholesterol | A condition in which blood is too high in lipoproteins and causes buildup in arteries. |
| Histamine | A chemical secreted by mast cells and basophils that promotes inflammation by causing capillaries to become more permeable. |
| Hypertension | The clinical term for high blood pressure, a person is considered to be hypertensive after three consecutive measurements of 140/90 mmHg or higher. |
| Immunodeficiency | A general term used to describe a person that has a weakened/compromised immune system. Immunodeficiencies cause a person to be susceptible to opportunistic infections, which are infections you wouldn’t normally get with a healthy immune system. |
| Immunotherapy | Medical treatments that assist, enhance, or suppress our immune response to pathogens. |
| Inferior Vena Cava | A vein that delivers deoxygenated blood from the lower portion of the body to the right atrium. |
| Inhalation | The events that occur to drive air flow into the lungs; when the diaphragm contracts to expand the thoracic cage and decrease the pressure inside of the chest. |
| Innate Immunity | Also known as non-specific immunity, innate immunity consists of general physiologic responses (fever, inflammation, etc.) that can affect the entire body. |
| Interferons | Cytokines that help cells during a viral infection; infected cells secrete interferons that warn surrounding cells that a viral infection is ensuing. Interferon stimulates the surrounding cells to increase their antiviral defenses. |
| Iron | Within the heme group of each globin polypeptide, iron is the atom to which oxygen binds. |
| Larynx | The airway in which sound is produced (commonly known as the “voice box”). |
| Leukemia | A cancer of red bone marrow that causes a significant increase in circulating white blood cells (leukocytes). |
| Leukocytes | White blood cells that participate in the body’s defense system. |
| Lipoproteins | Proteins the carry either high-density cholesterol ("good" cholesterol) or low-density cholesterol ("bad" cholesterol) through the blood. |
| Lungs | Organs found in the lower respiratory tract that contains the bronchial tree and alveolar air sacs; the lungs are where gas exchange occurs. The lungs are located in the thoracic cavity/chest of the body. |
| Lupus | Known as systemic lupus erythematosus, lupus is a systemic autoimmune disease that can affect any organ system. Lupus can be very difficult to diagnose because its signs and symptoms may mimic other diseases. |
| Lymph | A clear colorless fluid similar to plasma that circulates throughout lymphatic vessels on its way to the blood stream; lymph contains far less protein than plasma. |
| Lymph Node | A bean-shaped organ of the lymphatic system that ranges in size from microscopic to the size of a kidney bean. Lymph nodes contain dense populations of white blood cells, especially lymphocytes, and filter lymph as if flows through the node. |
| Lymphatic System | A system of vessels, nodes, glands, and lymph nodules that serves two major bodily functions: completing the fluid cycle by returning excess tissue fluid into the blood and producing, maturing and storing cells of the immune system. |
| Lymph Vascular System | Part of the lymphatic system; A system of lymphatic vessels that are used to circulate lymph back into the bloodstream; lymphatic vessels circulate lymph through lymph nodes to be filtered before entering the bloodstream. |
| Lymphocytes | White blood cells responsible for carrying out specific immune responses and primarily attack cells (for example, attacking cancerous and virus-infected cells). There are two types of lymphocytes, T & B cells. |
| MHC | Also known as major histocompatibility complex, MHCs are cellular markers on the plasma membrane that play an important role in mediating adaptive immunity. |
| MHC Markers | Cellular markers on the plasma membrane that play an important role in mediating adaptive immunity. |
| Malaria | Malaria is caused by a parasite that is transmitted via mosquitoes. The parasite first infects the liver; from there, the infection spreads to red blood cells. |
| Memory Cells | Memory cells are genetically programmed cells that have gone through an initial exposure to a pathogen/antigen. Memory cells can coordinate a much more specific and rapid response if we are ever exposed to that same pathogen/antigen. |
| Metastasis | The spreading of cancerous cells from one site in the body to another. |
| Monoclonal Antibody | An antibody that specifically targets only one of a pathogen's many antigens (unique chemical markers). |
| Monocytes | The largest type of white blood cells and are considered circulating phagocytes. Monocytes attempt to engulf and devour invading debris, microbes, or parasites. Monocytes are classified by their large, horseshoe-shaped nucleus. |
| Myocardium | The muscular tissue that composes the heart. |
| NK Cells (Natural Killer Cells) | Lymphocytes which help kill abnormal cells of the body including cancerous cells. |
| Nasal Cavity | The main cavity through which air is drawn in from the outside environment. |
| Neutrophils | White blood cells that attack bacteria invaders that enter the body; also called first responder cells. Neutrophils are distinguished by their 3-5 lobed, thin, horseshoe-shaped nucleus. |
| Oncogene | A gene that, when mutated, increases the likelihood that a cell will become cancerous. |
| Oral Cavity | A secondary cavity through which air is drawn in from the outside environment. |
| Oxyhemoglobin | The term used to describe when oxygen is bound to hemoglobin; oxygen + hemoglobin = oxyhemoglobin. |
| Pathogen | Any disease-causing agent that we are exposed to (bacteria, virus, fungus, parasite, etc.). |
| Pericardium | A fluid filled sac that surrounds the heart and provides protection and lubrication. |
| Phagocytes | Cells that act in innate immunity to engulf pathogens (phagocytosis) in an attempt to prevent infection. |
| Pharynx | Connects the nasal cavity to the mouth (commonly known as the “throat”). |
| Physical Barriers | Consists of skin and mucous membranes, physical barriers are our first line of defense against pathogens. Physical barriers are part of our non-specific immunity. |
| Plaque | A mass that is formed by buildup of cholesterol in the artery, thereby clogging the blood vessel. |
| Plasma | A component of blood that helps to transport various substances such as blood cells, platelets, iron and proteins. |
| Platelets | A component of blood that assists in clotting. |
| Pneumonia | An infection of the lungs in which fluid build-up makes it difficult to breathe. Also unusually hard to spell. |
| Pressure Gradient | Differences in pressures created by different concentrations of air in different areas. |
| Pulmonary Circuit | One of the two circuits of blood flow in which the right side of the heart pumps blood low in oxygen to the lungs and returns it to the left atrium. |
| Pulmonary Valve | A valve that allows blood to flow from the right ventricle to the pulmonary artery while preventing backflow. |
| Pulse | The surge of pressure felt in an artery when ventricles of the heart contract. |
| Radiation Therapy | A form of treatment for cancer patients in which radiation is used to try to kill cancerous cells. |
| Red Blood Cells | Cells found in the blood that carry oxygen and carbon dioxide. |
| Respiration | A term used to describe the movement of gasses across a semi-permeable membrane; in this case it would be the gas exchange process that occurs at the respiratory membrane (alveoli and pulmonary capillaries). |
| Respiratory Cycle | The events that occur during one breath; inhalation + exhalation = one respiratory cycle. |
| Respiratory Membrane | The respiratory membrane consists of alveolar air sacs and pulmonary capillaries, and is where the actual site of gas exchange occurs between atmospheric air and the blood. |
| Respiratory System | The organ system of gas exchange in the body; gas exchange occurs between atmospheric air we breathe in and blood in the pulmonary capillaries. These organs consist of the: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchial tree, bronchioles, alveoli, lungs. |
| Retrovirus | A virus whose genetic information is in the form of RNA rather than DNA. |
| Rheumatoid Arthritis | An autoimmune disease where the immune system produces autoantibodies against the connective tissue capsules of synovial joints. This causes severe inflammation and disfigurement of synovial joints, especially noticeable in the hands and feet. |
| Septicemia | When organisms, such as bacteria, get into the circulating blood and cause a system-wide infection. |
| Septum | A wall of tissue that separates the right and left halves of the heart. |
| Sickle Cell Anemia | Classified as hemolytic anemia, sickle cell anemia is caused by a genetic mutation that causes an abnormality in hemoglobin structure. The hemoglobin crystallizes and reshapes red blood cells from short biconcave disks into long sickle-shaped cells. |
| Sinoatrial Node (SA Node) | Known as the pacemaker of the heart due to its ability to depolarize and repolarize faster than the rest of the cardiac conduction system. It is located in the right atrium of the heart. |
| Sleep Apnea | A condition in which a person's breathing suddenly stops for a period of time and then resumes during sleep. |
| Spleen | The largest lymphatic organ that acts as a lymph node by filtering blood as it flows through it. The spleen is located in the upper left quadrant of the abdomen. The spleen internally contains white and red pulp and is often called a blood reservoir. |
| Stroke | When blood flow is obstructed to an area of the brain causing brain tissue to become ischemic; if blood flow is not immediately restored, brain damage will ensue. |
| Superior Vena Cava | A vein that delivers deoxygenated blood from the upper portion of the body to the right atrium. |
| Systemic Circuit | One of the two circuits of blood flow in which the left side of the heart pumps oxygen rich blood to the body and returns it to the right atrium. |
| Systole | A term used to describe an increase in pressure and work; measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg). |
| Systolic Pressure | One of two measures of blood pressure, systolic pressure is a higher pressure that occurs when the left ventricle of the heart is in systole (contracting) and pumping blood into the arteries, causing their pressure to increase. |
| T Cells | Also known as T lymphocytes, T cells carry out a version of specific immunity called cell-mediated immunity or cellular immunity. Two kinds: helper T cells (recruit other cells in the immune system) and cytotoxic T cells (kill pathogenic cells). |
| Thrombin | An enzyme in the blood that plays a critical role in hemostasis by converting the plasma protein fibrinogen into fibrin; fibrin secures platelets as they plug a damaged vessel (platelet plug) and the end result is a clot. |
| Thrombosis | The formation of a blood clot within a vessel; the clot obstructs blood flow through the vessel. |
| Thrombus | A clot that forms in a vessel and sticks to a plaque. |
| Thymus | A gland located in the mediastinum (the cavity between the lungs) just above the heart that matures T cells, not produces them. |
| Tidal Volume | The volume of air we breathe in per breath; the average tidal volume is 500 mL/breath. |
| Toxemia | A general term to describe blood poisoning. |
| Trachea | Connects the larynx to the lower respiratory tract (commonly known as the windpipe). |
| Tuberculosis | A lung infection caused by a type of bacteria which destroys lung tissue. |
| Tumor | A mass of abnormal cells formed from the uncontrolled division of cells in the area. |
| Tumor Suppressor Gene | A gene that acts to stop or slow abnormal cell growth. |
| Type I Diabetes | A metabolic disease known as diabetes mellitus, it is an autoimmune disease that destroys pancreatic β cells. β cells are responsible for producing and secreting insulin, so when a person loses these cells they have a difficult time metabolizing glucose. |
| Universal Donor | The blood type O; type O blood contains no surface antigens, so there is nothing for the immune system to reject. |
| Universal Recipient | The blood type AB; type AB blood contains both A & B surface antigens which means that a person with this blood type won’t have any A or B antibodies in their blood. |
| Vaccine (part 1) | A therapy that involves injecting an attenuated pathogen (or more likely, a fragment of a pathogen) into a person to induce active immunity. |
| Vaccine (part 2) | Vaccines prepare a person for when they are naturally exposed to specific pathogens by stimulating them to already have the proper antibodies and memory cells in their systems. |
| Vasoconstriction | A term used to describe when the muscular walls of a vessel tense, causing the diameter of the vessel to decrease; vasoconstriction increases blood pressure and makes it more difficult for blood to flow through a vessel. |
| Vasodilation | The term used to describe when the muscular walls of a vessel relax, causing the diameter of the vessel to enlarge. Vasodilation decreases blood pressure and makes it easier for blood to flow through a vessel. |
| Veins | A large diameter blood vessel that returns blood to the heart. |
| Ventricle | The right and left lower chambers of the heart. |
| Venules | A small diameter blood vessel that returns blood to the heart. |
| Vital Capacity | The maximum amount of air you move during one breathing cycle. |
| White Blood Cells | Also called leukocytes, white blood cells are the immune system/defense cells of the body. There are five major types of white blood cells in the body: neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, lymphocytes. |
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