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bio practical
information of lab practices and general biology information
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is a gene? | Is a segment of DNA that contains the instructions for building and maintaining living organisms. They serve as the blueprint for the synthesis of proteins, which are essential for the structure and function of cells. They are inherited from your parents. |
| What is DNA? | DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid) is a type of nucleic acid. It is inherited from an organisms parents. |
| What is a DNA's structure like? | It is very long, double-stranded, helical molecule composed of many nucleotide units. Packaged into chromosomes. -Each unit is composed of a sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base |
| What are the four nitrogenous bases found in DNA? | Purines : adenine (A) and guanine (G) Pyrimidines: cytosine (C) and thymine (T) |
| What do opposite nitrogenous bases form? | They form HYDROGEN BONDS. - A and T (two H-bonds) - C and G (three H-bonds) |
| Does DNA provide directions for its own replication? | Yes |
| Does DNA program a cells activities by directing the synthesis of proteins? | Yeth |
| What is DNA synthesis: Transcription? | Transcription is the process by which genetic information encoded in DNA is transcribed into DNA. The process takes place in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. So basically DNA to RNA in the nucleus. |
| What is DNA synthesis: Translation? | Huge step in the synthesis of proteins. Converts the genetic information stored in the mRNA into a sequence of amino acids. Occurs in the cytoplasm. 3 stages, initiation, elongation, and termination. Basically RNA to protein in cytoplasm. |
| DNA contains instructions to make polypeptide chains. How is this possible? | Part of the DNA unwinds, revealing the coding instructions. |
| When the DNA unwinds revealing the coding instructions, what happens next? | The information is carried to the cytoplasm via mRNA. TRANSCRIPTION |
| What are amino acids in the cytoplasm used for? | The amino acids in the cytoplasm are used to build polypeptides |
| What does the tRNA do with the amino acids? | tRNA picks up the amino acids and transport them to the ribosomes. TRANSLATION |
| What do ribosomes do with amino acids when given instructions by the RNA? | Ribosomes bond amino acids together according to the instructions given by the RNA. |
| What are GMO's? | Genetically modified organisms. organisms that have acquired one or more genes by artificial means |
| What is genetic engineering? (modification) | Direct manipulation of an organisms genome using biotechnology. |
| What is a transgenic organism? | When a gene is transplanted from one organism into another (typically of another species) |
| What are the types of genetic modification? | Traditional breeding, Mutagenesis, RNA interference, Transgenics. |
| What is traditional breeding? | Crossing plants and selecting offspring. Desired genes inserted with other genetic material. here are no safety requirements. |
| What is mutagenesis? | Exposing seeds to chemicals or radiation. Random changes in genome, usually unpredictable. No safety testing requirements. |
| What is RNA interference? | Switching off selected genes with RNA. Targeted genes switched off or 'silenced' . Safety required. |
| What is transgenics? | Inserting selected genes using recombinant DNA methods. Desired genes inserted only at known locations. Safety testing required. |
| Describe selective breeding | Slow and imprecise. Its the modification of genes that naturally occur in the organism. |
| Describe genetic modification. | Very fast and precise. Can introduce genes into an organism that would not naturally occur. |
| What is gene cloning? | It is an application of biotechnology. It is the manipulation of organisms or their components to make useful products. |
| What do researches do with bacterial plasmids? | Researchers can manipulate bacterial plasmids so that they contain genes from other organisms. |
| What can be done with recombinant DNA plasmids? | Recombinant DNA plasmids can then be inserted into bacteria. |
| What happens if the recombinant bacteria multiply into a clone? | If the recombinant bacteria multiply into a clone, the foreign genes are also duplicate and copies of the gene or its protein products can be harvested. |
| What is the basic methodology of producing a GMO? | Bacteria -> Ti plasmid - restriction site -> DNA containing the gene for a desired trait - The gene is inserted into the plasmid -> Recombined Ti plasmid -> the recombinant plasmid is introduced into a plant cell in culture - > plant cell grow into plant |
| What are some common challenges in agriculture? | -Drought/Compaction -Insects -Fungus/disease -Weeds |
| How are GMO's transforming agriculture? | -Herbicide tolerance -Insect Tolerance -Improved Nutrition -Stress Tolerance -Increased Storage -Medicinal Uses -Disease Resistance |
| What are some concerns regarding genetically modified foods and animals? | -Risk to human health; unsafe to eat -Harm to the environment and wildlife -Increased pesticide and herbicide use affects Farmers’ health -Seed and pollen drift. -Creation of herbicide-resistant super weeds. |
| What are the Typical components of a transgenic cassette? | -Promoter: A switch that turns the gene on and off. tells the cell when to start making the protein that the gene codes for. -Transgene: Is the DNA sequence we want in the host plant -Terminator: Stop sign that tells the cell to stop makin protein |
| What was the lab plan overview in lab 5? | -DNA extraction -PCR amplification -Get electrophoresis |
| What is DNA Extraction? | Removal of (DNA) from the cells in which it normally resides |
| What is DNA extraction used for? | • diagnostic process to detect bacteria and viruses in the environment • diagnosing disease and genetic disorders • to learn more about cells, organism, species and how various parameters affect them |
| How does DNA Extraction work? | 1: break the cell that contains the DNA. 2: proteins that have long been associated with the DNA and other proteins belonging to the cell need to be removed 3rd: Precipitate DNA with cold ethanol. 4th: Dry the alcohol and test for the presence of DNA, |
| What is PCR and can it be used to do? | The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) can be used to amplify a DNA sample. Goal is find and replicate a specific DNA target. |
| When amplifying DNA sequences(PCR) what is role of a primer? | Specific primers flank the desired sequence, ensures that only a particular subset of the DNA sample will be copied |
| What is the basic procedure of amplifying DNA sequences (PCR)? | – Start with a DNA sample – Automated PCR generates billions of DNA copies in just a few hours – Produces enough DNA to allow a DNA profile to be constructed |
| What are the PCR components? | - DNA sample -Primers -Nucleotides -Taq polymerase -Mix Buffer -PCR Tube |
| What is the PCR process? | init denature : 94C 60s One cycle:10s 10s 15s 1. Denaturing - Temp is raised(95 C,) and the strands separate. 2. Annealing - temp lowers(55 C) and the primers bind with the template 3. Extension - Temp is raised (72 C) and it synthesizes a new strand |
| In lab 5, how much buffer is added to a PCR tube after 1-2mm of food crumbs are added? | 50 uL which is 0.05 ml of Lysis buffer is added. |
| After the PCR tube is removed from heat what is added? In lab 5 activity 2. | 5 uL of of neutralization buffer is added and mixed. |
| What is a centrifuge used for in lab 5? | To spin down debris before setting up PCR. |
| What is a centrifuge? (centrifugation) | piece of equipment, generally driven by a motor, that puts an object in rotation around a fixed axis, applying a force perpendicular to the axis. -The centrifuge is used to separate substances of greater and lesser density |
| What is a pellet? | Substances collected in the bottom of the centrifuge tube. |
| What is supernatant? | Liquid remaining above the pellet containing the cellular contents. |
| What is a soluble protein? | proteins which are loosely swimming in the cytoplasm or organelles of the cell |
| What is an insoluble protein? | cellular debris, unbroken cells. Same is true for other macromolecules in the cell |
| Whats in a EZ PCR Master mix 5X? | Its 5uL. (Taq DNA Polymerase + PCR Buffer + M g2+ + dNTPs) |
| What is in a GMO lab primer mix? | Its 20uL. Contains forward and reverse primers. |
| What is happening to DNA molecules at each step of PCR? | Denature then annealing then extension |
| Why do we need to add an enzyme (Taq polymerase) during PCR? | Due to its key role in synthesizing and amplifying new strands of DNA, |
| How many more molecules of DNA will we have with each PCR cycle? | The number of double stranded DNA pieces is doubled in each cycle, so that after n cycles you have 2^n (2 to the n:th power) copies of DNA |
| What is exponential amplification? | At every cycle, the amount of product is doubled (assuming 100% reaction efficiency) |
| What makes Taq unique? | Taq polymerase can work at high temperatures with high efficiency and amplification capacity, which other bodily enzymes cannot. |
| What temperature is optimal for most enzymes? | 98.6. body temp |
| What happens during gel electrophoresis? | -Method separates macromolecules on the basis of size, electrical charge, or other physical properties – Used primarily with proteins or nucleic acids |
| How do you prepare 1X TAE Buffer? | 1: Obtain 20X TAE Buffer (stock solution) 2:Prepare 300 mL of 1X TAE solution using the stock solution & distilled water. 3:Add 15 mL of 20X TAE buffer to 285 mL of distilled water. |
| How to prepare 1% agarose solution? | Measure 0.5 grams of Agarose Powder & mix it with 1X TAE Buffer enough until you have 50 mL of 1% Liquid Agarose. Gently dissolve powder into buffer until a homogenous solution is created. |
| What are the steps when running the gel? | • Run gel for 25m at 200 volts or until the DNA samples have migrated 1/2 way down the gel • Slide lid onto box make sure the +/- are in the right spot. • let run for 30m at 200 V, or when color lines have moved 1/2 down the gel • done turn off and go |
| What is electrophoresis? | |
| What is a stereo or dissecting microscope? | Used to look at petri dishes |
| What is a compound microscope? | Regular microscope looks at slides |
| What is the magnification power of a microscope? | 0.2 μm = 1000x of your eyes (0.2 mm) |
| What is the field of view? | • the area a person can view through a microscope. • It is represented by a lit circle |
| What is the relationship between the magnification power of a microscope and the field of view? | As magnification increases, field of view decreases. |
| What is the process to focus on specimens? | -Start with 4x or 10x - Put slide in the center -use coarse focus knob -use fine knob until clear -move to higher magnification |
| What does the lens do to the object inside of the microscope? | The lens inverts the image of the object inside the microscope. • Inverted = the image appears upside down and backward compared with the actual object. |
| How do you prepare a wet mount slide? | • Place slide on a flat surface. • Place a drop of water on the slide and add sample to the slide. U dont got to add water if the sample has water • Put cover over slide at an angle • Let the liquid to spread out dont touch |
| What information should you include when documenting an organism? | • Size/scale marker • Title/organism name • Total magnification • Label any visible structures • Draw things to scale • Do not draw things that you cannot see! |
| How do you calculate the magnification of a microscope? | Total magnification = magnification of the eyepiece (ocular) x magnification of the objective lens |
| How to estimate the size of an object in a field? | Size of object = diameter of field of view / # of time the object fits across the field |
| How do you calculate the Microscope Field of View on other powers | (Total magnification on lower power /Total magnification on higher power) = (field of view on higher power / field of view on lower power) |
| What are the common properties all forms of life share? | 1. Order 2. Reproduction 3. Growth and development 4. Energy processing 5. Regulation 6. Response to the environment 7. Evolutionary adaptation |
| What are emergent properties? | • new properties that arise in each step upward in the hierarchy of life • Think “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts” • Arrangement & Interaction |
| What is life's hierarchy of organization? | 1. Biosphere 2. Ecosystem 3. Community 4. Population 5. Organism 6. Organs and organ systems 7. Tissue 8. Cell 9. Organelle 19. Molecule |
| What di Robert Hooke conclude? | -1665; first person to use the term “cells” after looking at cork under a simple microscope |
| What did Matthias Schleiden conclude? | – 1838; concluded all plants are made of cells |
| What is cell theory? | • all living things are made up of cells • cells are the basic units of structure and function in an organism • new cells are produced from existing cells |
| What did Theodore Schwann conclude? | 1839; concluded all animals are made of cells |
| What did Rudolf Virchow conclude? | – 1855: concluded all cells came from pre- existing cells |
| What is a cell? | • organism’s smallest structural and functional unit. Building blocks of life. |
| What are the components of a cell? | • Water • Ions, buffers • Various sized molecules |
| What is cell diversity? | - size -shape -internal organization |
| What can all cells do? | • enclosed within a membrane • regulate its internal environment • take in & use energy • respond to its environment • use DNA to share their genetic make-up • give rise to new cells |
| What are the types of classification? | -Cell Nature -Cell Occurrence -Mode of Nutrition - Level of Body organization |
| What are characteristics of prokaryotic cells? ex: E.coli | • semi-rigid cell wall & a flexible membrane • has nucleoid region • one or more loops of DNA circular molecule • cytoplasm and protein making place called ribosomes. • simple internal membranes, but environment within cell is essentially uniform. |
| What are the shapes of prokaryotic cells? | -spherical (cocci) - rod-shaped (bacilli) -spiral |
| What are some characteristic of a eukaryotic cells? | • internal membrane separating DNA from the cytoplasm. • DNA organized in one or more long chains : chromosomes. • contains several internal membranes that create distinct subcellular environments. • Internal compartments - organelles • are efficient |
| What are characteristics of eukaryotic plant cells? | • Autotrophic • Chloroplasts and chlorophyll • Cellulose cell wall • fixed shape • Large vacuoles • Utilize starch as a source of energy storage |
| What are characteristics of eukaryotic animals cells? | • Heterotrophic • Plasma membrane • Flexible shape • Utilize glycogen as a source of energy storage • Possess centrioles • Used during cellular division |
| What are the differences between animal cells and plant eukaryotic cells? | • Animal cells are heterotrophic (cant produce their own energy). They dont contain chloroplasts or chlorophyll. • They are not surrounded by cell walls made of cellulose. • Have plasma membranes. • Vacuoles in plants are bigger than those of animals |
| Why does cell division occur? | • Needed to replace/repair worn out cells in multicell organisms • Incr. size -> incr. surface area to volume ratio • Divides cytoplasm into cells surrounded by plasma membranes • Needed for reproduction/growth in unicell/multicell organisms |
| What is the process of binary fission in prokaryotic cells? | 1. Cell elongates and DNA is replicated 2. Cell wall and plasma membrane begin to divide 3. Cross-wall forms completely around divided DNA 4. Cells separate |
| Do Eukaryotes divide in the same way? | • Must divide their nucleus (and other organelles) in preparation for cell division (mitosis or meiosis) |
| What are chromosomes? | Thread like structure in which eukaryotic cells store genetic information. |
| What is a diploid? | cell or an organism with two sets of chromosomes. Somatic cells |
| What is a haploid? | cell or organism with one set of chromosomes. Gametes, egg and sperm cells |
| What are sister chromatids? | (single X-shape) • Duplicated chromosome • Genetically identical |
| What are homologous chromosomes? | (2 X-shapes) • Control the same traits, but may have different alleles of that gene • Genetically similar • One from inherited from each parent |
| What are sex chromosomes? | Are distinct in their characteristics • Are represented as X and Y • Determine the sex of the individual |
| What are the two ways DNA can be arranged? | • Loose (Interphase) • Replication occurs when chromosomes are in a relatively formless state. • Super-coiled (Mitosis) • Mitosis occurs after chromatin condenses into the discernible shapes of duplicated chromosomes. |
| What are the phases of mitosis? | PPMAT -Prophase -Prometaphase -Metaphase -Anaphase -Telophase |
| What are the phases of the eukaryotic cell cycle? | Divided into two major phases: interphase and mitotic(M) phase G1,S,G2,M INTERPHASE: G1,S ,G2 , MITOTIC(M): Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase. |
| What happens in mitosis? | A process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells divided into four stages: PPMAT Mitosis conserves chromosome number by equally allocating replicated chromosomes to each of the daughter nuclei. RESULT: TWO IDENTICAL DAUGHTER CELLS |
| What happens in Meiosis 1? | Meiosis 1: First division. homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange segments (crossing over), then separate and move to opposite poles of the cell. P1,M1,A1,T1. Reduces the chromosome number by half. |
| What happens in Meiosis 2? | The second division of meiosis, when sister chromatids SEPARATE and MOVE to opposite poles of the cell. Is similar to mitosis, except that the cells are haploid. P2,M2,A2,T2 Makes four haploid cells, each with a diff combo of chromosomes. |
| What happens in prophase in Mitosis? | The chromosomes condense and become visible. The nuclear envelope breaks down and the spindle fibers form. |
| What happens in prometaphase in Mitosis? | The chromosomes attach to the spindle fibers at their kinetochores. The chromosomes move toward the equator of the cell. |
| What happens in metaphase in Mitosis? | The chromosomes align at the metaphase plate (the middle of the cell). |
| What happens in anaphase in Mitosis? | The sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles of the cell. The cell elongates as the spindle fibers pull apart. |
| What happens in Telophase in Mitosis? | The chromosomes reach the poles and decondense. The nuclear envelope reforms and the spindle fibers disappear. |
| What happens during cytokinesis in Mitosis? | Cytokinesis is the process where the cytoplasm of a parent cell is divided between two daughter cells. ANIMAL: cleavage furrow, daughter cells PLANT: cell plate forms in center and grows until it divides cytoplasm in two. |
| What is interkinesis? | |
| What are similarities between mitosis and meiosis? | -Occurs in plants and animals -starts with a diploid parent cell -produces new cells -cells undergo DNA replication |
| What is a slime mold? | an informal name given to several kinds of unrelated eukaryotic organisms that can live freely as single cells, but can aggregate together to form multicellular reproductive structures. |
| What are the two groups of protists? | Plasmodial Slime Molds OR Cellular Slime Molds |
| What is a plasmodial slime mold? | - Bright yellow/orange - Heterotrophic -Feeding stage is called plasmodium -Diploid -Used to study mitosis |
| What is a Carbohydrate? | Definition: – class of organic compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio. • Function: – Fuel source, provide support and protection. • Classification: – Mono-, di- and polysaccharides. |
| What do macromolecules have to do with cells? | long molecule (polymer) consisting of many similar building blocks (monomers) The base elements of all macromolecules are: – Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O). • Types of Macromolecules: – Carbohydrates – Proteins – Lipids – Nucleic acids |
| What is a Monosaccharide? | Simplest form of carbohydrates oxygen and hydrogen atoms • Function: – Fuel for organisms – Building blocks for larger molecules • Examples: – Ribose • (components of DNA/RNA) – Glucose & its isomers of it |
| What is Benedicts Reagent? | Benedicts reagent - chemical compound made up of copper sulfate, which can detect the presence of glucose or fructose. Benedicts reagent is blue and when its mixed with a solution containing sugars a change will occur. – Blue -> yellow/orange |
| What is a reagent? | chemical that is applied to another substance in order to produce a chemical reaction |
| What are Disaccharides? | (Double Sugars) - Function: – Fuel for organisms • Examples: – Sucrose (table sugar) – Maltose |
| Polysaccharides | (Complex carbohydrates) Function: – Energy Storage – Structural support • Examples: – Cellulose = plant cell walls – Starch = plant energy source – Glycogen = stored animal energy – Chitin = component of exoskeleton |
| What are Proteins? | – Amino acids bound by peptide bonds • Function: – Necessary dietary component for animals that can’t synthesize all 20 amino acids needed to build protein structure within the cell – Enzymes = catalyze biochemical reactions within a cell |
| what’s an amino acid? | Amino acids have a two-carbon bond. |
| What is Biuret Reagent? | made of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and hydrated copper(II) sulfate. |
| What is a Biuret Assay? | a chemical test used for detecting the presence of peptide bonds. |
| What is a lipid? | Definition: – Oily or waxy molecules that are non-polar/hydrophobic (repel water; do not dissolve). Function: – Fuel source à condensed energy storage. • Classification: – Triglycerides, phospholipids and steroids. |
| Triglycerides | Distinguished by their structure and melting point. • Structure: – Glycerol backbone – Three (tri) fatty acids (hydrocarbon chains) • Examples: Fats & Oils |
| What are Phospholipids? | Similar to triglycerides, but contain polar organophosphate group instead of one of the three fatty acids • When phospholipids are added to water, they self-assemble into a bilayer, with the hydrophobic tails pointing toward the interior |
| Functions of a Cell Membrane | Separates that components of a cell from it environment • Considered the “gatekeeper” of the cell – regulates the flow of materials into and out of the cell – selectively permeable • Cell membrane helps cells maintain homeostasis –balance |
| Selectively Permeable Membrane | Membranes that contain transport proteins that selectively allow molecules to pass through |
| Types of movement throughout a cell membrane | – Down a concentration gradient • from HIGH to LOW solute concentration – Against a concentration gradient • from LOW to HIGH solute concentration |
| Diffusion | Definition: – Movement of a solute (substance) from HIGH to LOW concentration (solutes move) Example: Pouring Sugar (granules) into Water – Sugar diffuses from a HIGH concentration (powder) to a LOW concentration (water). |
| Various Types of Diffusion | • Simple diffusion: – Small, non-polar molecules pass through cell membrane’s pores without assistance Facilitated diffusion: – large, polar molecules pass through cell membrane with the assistance of carrier proteins |
| Types of Cellular Transport | Passive - cells do not use energy Active - cells use energy |
| Osmosis | Movements of water across a membrane toward a higher solute concentration |
| Osmotic pressure | pressure created by the movement or water into the solution with the higher solute concentration without a corresponding revers movement of the solute molecules |
| How to set up a artificial cell? | -dialysis tubing. -add 10.0 ml of stock solution to bag - tie off -weigh cell -place cell int beaker of distilled water |
| Osmolarity | measure of solute concentration |
| Osmotic imbalance | when a cell is in either a hypotonic or hypertonic environment |
| Hypotonic | environment has a lower solute concentration than inside the cell Shriveled up = crenation |
| Isotonic | cell and its environment have the same concentration Normal |
| Hypertonic | environment has higher solute concentration than inside cell Boutta explode = Hemolysis |
| Enzymes | protein catalyst with an active site capable of binding one ore more substrate molecules |
| Catalyst | substance that accelerates a chemical reaction but are not used up or changed in the process. |
| Substrate | molecule upon which an enzyme acts |
| Product | molecules that are produced after enzyme activity |
| Building molecules | synthesis enzymes |
| breaking down molecules | digestive enzymes |
| Enzyme substrate reaction | -Substrate binds with enzyme active site and substrate complex is formed - the substrate is broken down into product(E) and is released from the active site - the unchanged enzyme is free to accept another substrate molecule |
| Activation energy | A minimum amount of energy that is required to activate atoms or molecules to a condition in which they undergo transformation |
| Enzymatic Reaction | -reduce the activation energy of a reaction - can be used over and over - are required in only small amount for a reaction |
| Enzyme activity equation | enzyme activity = product formed / time =rate of the the reaction |
| Factors influencing enzyme activity | Temperature Substrate Cofactors Inhibitors Substrate concentration Enzyme concentration |
| Temperature Sensitivity | Heat increases molecular motion & collision frequency – Small temp increases might speed up a reaction, but high temp could denature enzymes |
| Cofactors | Inorganic ions that bind to certain enzymes and are essential for their function. |
| Chelators/Inhibitors | Any chemical that when present makes another molecule unavailable – can bind to enzymes or cofactors, slowing down the rates of the enzyme catalyzed reactions |
| Competitive Inhibition: | Inhibitor and substrate “compete;” only one can bind to the active site. The enzyme’s function is disabled as long as the inhibitor remains bound. |
| Noncompetitive Inhibition: | An inhibitor binds to a site away from the active site, changing the enzyme’s shape so that the substrate no longer fits. |
| Enzyme Concentration | Adding more enzymes increases reaction rate if there is sufficient substrate available. |
| Catecholase | enzyme responsible for the "browning" of many fruits and vegetables |
| Catechol | substrate |
| Why did we blend up the potato? | to break down the potato tissue into smaller particles to help the enzymes being released |
| What does positive control mean? | receives a treatment or test with a known result. |
| What does negative control mean? | a group in an experiment that does not receive any type of treatment |
| What is spectrophotometer? | Equipment used to measure the intensity of light that passes through a substance |
| Beers law | As the concentration of a solution increases so does the absorbance |
| Thermodynamics | study of energy transformations that could or do occur; energy conversion |
| Phosphorylation | Hydrolysis of ATP releases energy by transferring its third phosphate from ATP to some other molecule |
| Why is photosynthesis important? | Makes organic molecules (glucose) out of inorganic materials (carbon dioxide and water). • It begins all food chains/webs. Thus all life is supported by this process. • It also makes oxygen gas |
| Photosynthesis | Convert light energy (photons) to chemical energy (sugars) |
| Photosynthesis equation | 6CO2 + 6H2O ----Light Energy---> C6H12O6 +6O2 |
| The Chemistry Behind Photosynthesis | Oxidation • Loss of electrons (gain of O2) • Reduction • Gain of electrons (loss of O2) |
| Light-Dependent Reactions | Photosynthetic pigments absorb photons which cause H2 O to split into H+ and O2 (gas) |
| Light-Independent Reaction (Dark Reaction) | Does not require light • Calvin Cycle • Occurs in stroma of chloroplast • Requires CO 2 • Uses ATP and NADPH as fuel to run • Makes sugar (glucose) from CO 2 and Hydrogen |
| Where does photosynthesis occur? | Leaves -. Mesophyll cells -> Chloroplast ->Thylakoid membranes |
| Chloroplast Structure & Function | The chloroplast has three membranes: inner, outer, and thylakoid It has three compartments: stroma, thylakoid space, and inter-membrane space. |
| Basics of Aerobic Cellular Respiration | Cellular respiration • is the aerobic breakdown of glucose in the mitochondria to make ATP “Pulmonary Respiration” • an everyday term that is often used to mean “breathing. |
| Cellular respiration equation | C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H2O +ATP+HEAT |
| Stages of aerobic cellular respiration | -glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation -Highly efficient 32 ATP MOLECULES PER GLUCOSE MOLECULE |
| Anaerobic Respiration | A way of harvesting chemical energy that does not require oxygen (anaerobic). • Also known as fermentation. • Fermentation: • uses glycolysis • produces two ATP molecules per glucose • reduces NAD+ to NADH |
| Algae Beads are awesome... but why? | Live algae (Scenedesmus obliquus) are immobilized in alginate as “beads”. The algae can photosynthesize and respire while beaded |
| CO2 indicator | Purple= basic solution (photosynthesis, CO2 consumption) Yellow = acidic solution(cellular respiration, CO2 production) |
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