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Bio Unit 2 Terms
Human Biology 2 - Unit 2 Terms - Sophia
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Abduction | A type of movement allowed primarily by synovial joints in which an appendage is moved away from the body’s center. Lifting your arm up and away from your side is an example of abduction. |
| Actin | A protein referred to as the thin filament of a sarcomere; creates the lighter color within a sarcomere and interacts with myosin to create movement. |
| Action Potential | The technical term for a nervous impulse; when a wave of depolarized electrical energy travels down the length of a cell/tissue. |
| Adduction | A type of movement allowed primarily by synovial joints in which an appendage moves closer to the body’s center. Lowering your arm closer to your side from a lifted position is an example of adduction. |
| Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) | The primary form of energy used by cells to perform work; is the nucleotide adenine (A) with three phosphate groups instead of one. |
| Aerobic Exercise | A type of physical activity that gradually conditions slow muscles to work for longer periods of time. |
| Anabolic Steroids | A substance that mimics testosterone used to build muscle and enhance physical performance. |
| Antagonistic Contraction | When an opposing muscle on the opposite side of a joint contracts to create an opposing movement to its muscle counterpart. |
| Appendicular Skeleton | The division of the skeletal system that includes the bones of the hips, shoulders, and the limbs. |
| Atrophy | The wasting away of muscle tissue leading to very weak muscles. |
| Axial Skeleton | The division of the skeletal system that composes the body's vertical axis and includes the skull, backbone, ribs, and sternum. |
| Bone | A connective tissue of cells and fibers covered by a membrane called the periosteum. |
| Bone Marrow | A substance that is found within the hollow areas of bone; red marrow is found within the spongy bones and yellow marrow is found in the shaft (diaphysis) of long bones. |
| Bone Remodeling | The process bones constantly undergo of taking away and building tissue; is controlled by mechanical stress and hormonal negative feedback loops. |
| Calcitonin | A hormone that is secreted by the thyroid gland that lowers osteoclast activity in proportion to osteoblast activity when blood calcium levels are too high. |
| Calcium | A mineral necessary for the proper development and mineralization, as well as proper nerve and muscle function |
| Cardiac Muscle | A form of muscle that contains short, branched, striated single-nucleated cells; cardiac muscle is only located in the heart and is used to pump blood throughout the cardiovascular system. |
| Carpal Tunnel Syndrome | The inflammation of tendons in the wrist which then press on surrounding nerves; caused by repeated motion. |
| Cartilage | A tough, flexible, whitish connective tissue (also known as "gristle"); gives shape to the ear and nose tip; provides cushion between many joints. |
| Cartilage Model | The model that is used to describe how bone is manufactured from embryonic cartilage. |
| Cartilaginous Joint | A joint where two or more bones are held together by a piece of cartilage (example: vertebrae or pubic bones); these joints are slightly moveable. |
| Circumduction | A type of movement allowed primarily by synovial joints in which an appendage moves in a circular motion. Doing arm circles in which the arm moves in a large circular pattern like a windmill is an example of circumduction. |
| Compact Bone | A type of bone tissue that consists of many osteons and a dense tissue matrix; cells of the osteons surround central canals called Haversian canals; found in the shafts of long bones and periphery of spongy bone. |
| Complete Fracture | A break in which the bone separates into two and tissue damage occurs. |
| Compound Fracture | A break in which the bone shatters causing a significant amount of soft tissue damage. |
| Contraction | A muscle fiber generates tension, causing the muscle to shorten. |
| Creatine | A substance found naturally in muscles or used as a supplement to replenish ATP during workouts. Replenishing ATP allows muscles to sustain activity for longer periods of time. |
| Dislocation | A disorder in which two bones of a joint are no longer in contact with each other. |
| Epiphysis | Enlarged ends of long bones that contains spongy bone and yellow bone marrow, except the head of the humerus and femur (contains red marrow). |
| Extension | A type of movement allowed primarily by synovial joints in which an appendage is straightened from a flexed position. For example, extension of the arm from a flexed position will return it to its normal resting position. |
| Fast Skeletal Muscle | Also known as white skeletal muscle; a type of muscle that can contract quickly for a short period of time. |
| Fibrous Joint | A joint where two or more bones are fused together by tough, fibrous connective tissue (example: skull sutures); this is the least moveable joint of the body. |
| Flexion | A type of movement allowed primarily by synovial joints in which an appendage is able to bend. For example, flexion of the bicep muscle pulls the forearm upward by allowing it to bend at the elbow. |
| Homeostasis | The process of maintaining a stable internal environment. |
| Insertion | The fixed, moveable end of a skeletal muscle. |
| Involuntary Muscle | A form of muscle that we have no conscious control of; cardiac and smooth muscle are in this category. |
| Jaundice | A disorder associated with liver function. Jaundice can be caused by the use of steroids. |
| Joint | An area where two or more bones come together. |
| Ligament | A structure composed of dense irregular connective tissue that holds bones together within synovial joints. |
| Liver | The largest of the visceral organs, the liver produces bile and secretes it into the gallbladder to be stored; also processes nutrients such as amino acids and carbohydrates and also “detoxifies” the blood. |
| Motor Neuron | A neuron that delivers signals to muscles or glands. |
| Motor Unit | The term used to describe one motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it innervates at once. |
| Muscle Spasm | An involuntary muscle contraction often caused by potassium deficiencies. |
| Muscular Dystrophy | A genetic disorder that causes the gradual breakdown of muscle fibers. |
| Muscular System | One of the eleven organ systems of the human body; contains three different types of histological forms of muscle (smooth, cardiac, skeletal) that are found in different areas of the body but all share the same primary function and movement. |
| Myofibrils | Muscle cells (aka muscle "fibers") contain myofibrils, which are long chains of myofilaments. |
| Myofilament | Made up of proteins (mostly actin and myosin); make up myofibrils within muscle cells (aka muscle "fibers"). |
| Myofilaments | Myofilaments are made up of proteins (mostly actin and myosin). Myofilaments make up myofibrils within muscle cells (aka muscle "fibers"). |
| Myoglobin | A protein that binds oxygen which is necessary for the production of ATP. |
| Myosin | A protein referred to as the thick filament of a sarcomere; creates the darker colors within a sarcomere and contains various heads that pull on actin filaments to create movements. |
| Neuromuscular Junction | The area where the end of a motor neuron comes close to a muscle fiber. |
| Neurotransmitter | A chemical messenger that carries signals across the synapse between cells. |
| Origin | The fixed, non-moveable end of a skeletal muscle. |
| Osteoarthritis | The wearing away of cartilage that occurs between joints which can lead to inflammation and the formation of small protrusions on bones near the joint called bone spurs. |
| Osteoblast | A cell that builds bone tissue by secreting collagen fibers that bind to calcium; this combination forms the tough tissue matrix of bone. |
| Osteoclast | A cell that breaks down bone tissue by secreting hydrochloric acid into the tissue spaces; dissolves the bond between calcium and collagen. |
| Osteocyte | A bone cell that is formed when an osteoblast becomes embedded in the matrix it has secreted and the matrix is mineralized. |
| Osteon | The functional unit of bone, is circular in nature, and contains a hollow entral canal (Haversian canal) that is surrounded by bone cells (osteocytes). |
| Osteoporosis | A disorder in which the bone tissue deteriorates over time. |
| Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) | A hormone that is secreted by the parathyroid glands that activates osteoclasts when our blood calcium levels are too low. |
| Periosteum | A two-layered connective tissue that is found on the outside of all bones; supports, nourishes, and protects bones of the body. |
| Pronation | A type of movement allowed primarily by synovial joints in which the forearm and palm face downward or toward the back. |
| Reciprocal Innervation | The nervous system controlling muscle groups that oppose and work against one another; allows for a variety of movements and protection of joints. |
| Rotation | A type of movement allowed primarily by synovial joints in which an appendage pivots about its axis. Holding the arm straight out and twisting it on its axis is an example of rotation. |
| Sarcomere | The functional and contractile units of skeletal and cardiac muscles; created by a specific arrangement of myofilaments called actin and myosin; each sarcomere is bordered by a z-line. |
| Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR) | A specialized form of smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) found within skeletal muscles; used for calcium storage. |
| Simple Fracture | A break in which the bone is still in one piece and minimal or no tissue damage occurs. |
| Skeletal Muscle | A form of muscle that contains very long, striated, multinucleated cells; skeletal muscles are the largest form of muscles in the body. They are attached to the skeleton and are used to move our bones, generate heat and protect deeper internal organs. |
| Skull | A part of the axial skeleton that acts to protect the brain. |
| Sliding Filament Mechanism | A theory used to describe how the myofilaments within the sarcomere interact with one another; actin and myosin cling together and slide past one another. |
| Slow Skeletal Muscle | Also known as red skeletal muscle; a type of muscle that can contract slowly for long periods of time. |
| Smooth Muscle | A form of muscle that contains short, tube-like (fusiform) single-nucleated cells; smooth muscle range from having many layers to a single layer of cells; smooth muscle is found in the walls of hollow organs. |
| Spongy Bone | Thin beams of compact bone that are found in the ends of long bones and the middle of spongy bone; is porous and lighter in weight. |
| Sprain | A torn ligament or tendon caused by overuse. |
| Sternum | A bone of the axial skeleton that serves as an attachment point on the front of the body for the ribs. |
| Strain | Muscle fiber that tears or stretches too far. |
| Strength Training | A type of physical activity that increases the size of the muscles and has an effect mainly on fast muscle fibers. |
| Supination | A type of movement allowed primarily by synovial joints in which the forearm and palm face upward or toward the front. |
| Synapse | The gap between the end of a motor neuron and a muscle fiber. |
| Synergistic Contraction | When a group of muscles work together to create the same movement; an example would be your bicep brachii and brachialis muscle contraction simultaneously to create flexion (bending) of your elbow. |
| Synovial Fluid | Fluid found within synovial joints to reduce wear and tear and to nourish the structures inside of the joint capsule. |
| Synovial Joint | The most common joint in humans and also the most complex; contains two key characteristics: surrounded by a joint capsule and contains synovial fluid; also the most highly moveable joint in humans. |
| Tendon | A tough band of fibrous connective tissue that usually connects muscle to bone. |
| Testosterone | The hormone that controls the development of the male reproductive system, as well as many tissues in both the male and female body. |
| Tetanus | A term used to describe a prolonged muscle contraction; often used to describe a person who has been exposed to Clostridium tetani toxin. |
| Twitch | The way a skeletal muscle contracts, sarcomeres quickly pull inward and create a quick, jerky twitch. |
| Voluntary Muscle | A form of muscle that we have conscious control of; only skeletal muscles are the only voluntary muscles. |
| Pectoral Girdle | The bones associated with the upper part of the appendicular skeleton including the scapulas, clavicles, and arms. |
| Pelvic Girdle | The bones associated with the lower part of the appendicular skeleton including the pelvis and legs. |
| Ribs | Bones of the axial skeleton that attach to the sternum and backbone to compose a "cage" that protects internal organs. |
| Strain | An overuse injury that stretches a tendon past its normal point. |
| Tropomyosin | In skeletal muscles, protein shields actin, preventing myosin from binding unless there's a signal from a nerve. |
| Troponin | When a nerve signals a muscle fiber to contract, the sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium, which binds the protein troponin. Troponin then causes tropomyosin to expose actin to myosin for binding, leading to a contraction. |
| Vertebral Column | A part of the axial skeleton that protects the spinal cord and gives shape and structure to the body. |
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dstashevsky
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