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Biological Diversity
Exam #2 Study Guide
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is the between an animal,plant,fungal, and "prokaryotic" cell? | Prokaryotic cells are cells of bacteria, while cells of animals, plants, fungi, and protists are called eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells are characterized by the presence of a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles, while prokaryotic cells lack nu. |
| What is the three domains of life? | The three domains of life are Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya. |
| What taxonomic groups are considered "Prokaryotes"? | The group that has prokaryotic individuals is the domains Bacteria and Archaea. |
| How do we define a species in bacteria and archaea [compared to sexually reproducing organisms]? | All archaea and bacteria are microbial species (living things too small to see with the naked eye). Bacteria and archaea cannot reproduce sexually. |
| How do gram-positive and gram-negative cells differ? | Gram-positive cells have a thick, multilayered cell wall made of peptidoglycan and teichoic acid. Gram-negative cells have a thin, single-layered cell wall with very little peptidoglycan. |
| How do bacteria maintain genetic diversity in the absence of sex? Why is maintenance of genetic diversity important? | Genetic diversity of offspring is useful in changing or inconsistent environments and may be one reason for the evolutionary success of sexual reproduction. |
| What are the three types of horizontal gene transfer? | Transformation is the uptake of naked DNA from the environment or from a dead donor bacterium. Transduction: the transfer of DNA by a bacteriophage (a virus that infects bacteria Conjugation: the direct exchange of DNA between two living bacterial cells |
| What are the benefits [e.g., antibiotic resistance] and costs [e.g., need more energy to reproduce with extra genes] associated? with plasmids and horizontal gene transfer? | Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria change so that antibiotic medicines can’t kill them or stop their growth. |
| What does it means to be an extremophile and be able to give a few examples of the ways that archaea are extremophiles? | Archaea are often referred to as "extremophiles" because they are found in extreme conditions such as volcanic vents, subzero temperatures, and extremely high salt content, where normal bacteria cannot survive. |
| How are “Protists” classified [monophyletic or paraphyletic]? | groups of protists do not share a common ancestor with each other that is not also shared with plants, fungi, and animals, "protists" represent a polyphyletic group. Only the characteristic of being eukaryotic unites, but is not exclusive to, this group. |
| Why are “Protists” and "Prokaryotes” in quotation marks? | because they include bacteria and archaea and they're actually very different. |
| what mitochondria and chloroplasts are, what they each evolved from? theory of endosymbiosis. Be able to explain the evidence for this theory as we covered in detail in class? | Mitochondria and chloroplasts are believed to have evolved from engulfed prokaryotes that once lived as independent organisms. evolved from free-living oxygen metabolizing bacteria and photosynthetic bacteria. |
| What are the supergroups of "Protists" and their characteristics? Chromalveolata: diverse group that includes algae, ciliates, diatoms, and water molds.Amoebozoa: amoebas with lobe-shaped pseudopodia | Excavata: asymmetrical, single-celled organisms with a feeding groove.Rhizaria: amoebas with threadlike or needle-like pseudopodia. Archaeplastida: photosynthetic organisms that include red and green algae and land plants. |
| What is the importance of the specific adaptations that plants underwent that allowed them to live on land? | Alternation of generations Sporangium in which the spores are formed Gametangium that produces haploid cells Apical meristem tissue involved in growth Vascular tissues |
| What are the synapomorphies for all land plants and the specific groups of plants that we’ve discussed in class? | A life cycle with an alternation of generations Apical cell growth (meristem-like growth organization) Antheridia Archegonia A cuticle (outer covering used to control water loss on land) |
| Is the ancestor of all plant's terrestrial or aquatic? | The ancestor of all land plants was aquatic. |
| What are the major groups of nonvascular plants, seedless vascular plants, and seed vascular plants (e.g., “Bryophytes”, Pteridophytes [Pterophytes & Lycophytes], Gymnosperms, Angiosperms, etc.)? What are their synapomorphies? | Nonvascular :Mosses (Bryophyta) Liverworts (Marchantiophyta) Hornworts (Anthocerotophyta) Seedless: Lycophytes (club mosses, spike mosses, and quillworts) Ferns (including horsetails and whisk ferns) Seed vascular: Gymnosperms Angiosperms (flowers) |
| How is Peat Moss important ecologically? | Peat moss is a key component in the formation of several types of bogs in northern areas. |
| What are rhizoids and how do they differ from roots? | Roots are the part of a plant that absorbs water and nutrients, while rhizoids are rootlike structures that act as support and/or aid the absorption of nutrients. |
| What are the components of the plant life cycle [alternation of generations], including whether each structure or stage is haploid of diploid, single-celled or multicellular? | In the alternation of generations plant life cycle, plants alternate between two different life stages, or generations, in their life cycle; a haploid stage called gametophyte and a diploid stage called sporophyte. |
| What are the components of a seed and how seeds are adaptive (Note: you must also understand what adaptive means)? | A seed coat protects the internal parts of a seed. The endosperm contains the nutrients stored in it. The embryo is the most important part of a seed. It is diploid, developed from the fertilized egg. |
| When and why gymnosperms replaced seedless plants ? | Gymnosperms probably evolved from an extinct phylum of seedless vascular plants called progyonosperms which appeared about 380 million years ago. |
| What are the four groups of gymnosperms and their characteristics? | The four groups of gymnosperms share several common characteristics. They all have naked seeds, separate female and male gametes, pollination by wind, and tracheid, which transport water and solutes in the vascular system. |
| How does the life cycle of seed plants compares to that of seedless plants. What are the male and female gametophytes in gymnosperms and angiosperms? In gymnosperms, the male and female gametophyte structures are present in separate cones. | seed plants produce seeds that grow back, whereas seedless plants do not. Second, seed plants produce pollen, whereas seedless plants do not. Finally, seed plants can self-fertilize, whereas seedless plants cannot. In Angiosperms they are part of the fl |
| What are angiosperms? What are their synapomorphies? | Ovules that are enclosed within a carpel Double fertilization that produces an endosperm Stamens with two pairs of pollen sacs Phloem tissue composed of sieve tubes and companion cells Ethereal oil cells and columellate pollen grains |
| What are the components of a seed, flower, and fruit – what are the evolutionary benefits of each? | A seed consists of three components: an embryonic sporophyte plant, a tissue that provides nutrition to that embryo, and a 'seed coat' , the container tissue in which the embryo and nutritive tissue develop. |
| What are the benefits of pollination via animal pollinators vs. wind? Which groups of plants undergo pollination? | Reproduction and production of enough seeds for dispersal and propagation. Maintenance of genetic diversity within a population. Contribution to food security. Contribution to farmer livelihoods. Increasing the plant’s carbon dioxide |
| How might it be beneficial for a pollinator to be highly specialized on a type of plant and for a plant to have a highly specialized pollinator? | transfer of pollen between flowers of their own species than are abundant plant species, which pay a larger cost in terms of pollen loss |
| What group of plants dominate today? How can this be explained? | Angiosperms (the flowering plants) surpassed gymnosperms by the middle of the Cretaceous (about 100 Ma) in the late Mesozoic era, and today are the most abundant plant group in most terrestrial biomes. |
| What pollination is and the difference between pollination and seed dispersal? | Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the pollen cone to the seed cone in gymnosperms or from the anther to the stigma in angiosperms. Seed dispersal is the process by which plant seeds are transported to new locations for germination. |
| Why are flowers different colors, shapes, and smells? | Flowers have an intricate relationship with pollinators, such as bees, birds, bats, and even the wind. This relationship has resulted in flowers evolving with various colors, shapes, and smells that ensure their survival. |
| How do you distinguish between monocots and dicots? | Monocots have a single cotyledon inside the seed embryo, while dicots have two cotyledons inside the seed embryo. Monocots have leaves with parallel venation, while dicots have leaves with branched venation. |
| What group of plants is characterized as either a monocot or dicot? | Monocots and dicots are two lineages of plants found in angiosperms, which are flowering plants. |
| How do you know whether a plant is haploid, diploid, sporophyte, or gametophyte? The plants’ haploid phase is called the gametophyte, and the diploid phase is called the sporophyte. | Haploids contain one set of chromosomes in each of their cells. Diploids cells contain two chromosome sets. For plants, haploid and diploid cells divide via mitosis. |
| Know the evolutionary relationship between fungi and plants vs. animals? Which clades are more closely related? | Computational phylogenetics comparing eukaryotes revealed that fungi are more closely related to us than to plants. Fungi and animals form a clade called opisthokonta. |
| What is a synapomorphy of fungi? | The absence of flagella is a synapomorphy of fungi. |
| What are the general characteristics of a fungus, including the structure? | Eukaryotic Non-vascular Non-motile Heterotrophic May be unicellular or filamentous |
| What are the benefits of hyphae? What’s the difference between septate and coenocytic hyphae? | Hyphae are the branching filaments that make up the mycelium of a fungus. Septate hyphae have distinct cellular compartments separated by walls called septa. Coenocytic hyphae lack septa and contents of the hyphae can move freely. |
| What is the difference between meiosis and mitosis? | Mitosis involves the division of body cells, while meiosis involves the division of sex cells. The division of a cell occurs once in mitosis but twice in meiosis. |
| What is an Monophylum? | A monophylum is a hierarchical group of organisms including an ancestor species and all its descendants. |
| What is an clade ? | a group of organisms believed to have evolved from a common ancestor, according to the principles of cladistics: "the great ape and human clade" |
| What is an paraphylum? | a taxonomic term describing a grouping that consists of the grouping's last common ancestor and most of its descendants, but excludes one or more subgroups. |
| What is Cocci [in terms of shape of bacteria]? | any spherical or roughly spherical bacterium. |
| What is Bacillus/Rod [in terms of shape of bacteria]? | a rod-shaped bacterium or archaeon. |
| What is Spiral [in terms of shape of bacteria]? | spiral-shaped bacteria are spirilla |
| What is peptidoglycan? | a substance forming the cell walls of many bacteria, consisting of glycosaminoglycan chains interlinked with short peptides. |
| What is binary fission? | a form of asexual reproduction in which a prokaryotic cell divides into two identical cells after duplicating its DNA. |
| What is vertical gene transfer? | a method of gene transferring from parent to their offspring. |
| What is horizontal gene transfer? | the acquisition by an organism of genetic information by transfer, for example via the agency of a virus, from an organism that is not its parent and is typically a member of a different species. |
| What is transformation? | internal fundamental evolution of your beliefs of why you perform certain actions. |
| What is conjugation? | a sexual process in which two lower organisms of the same species exchange nuclear material during a temporary union. |
| What is transduction? | The process by which foreign DNA is transferred from one bacterial cell to another by a virus or viral vector, such as a bacteriophage. |
| What is plasmid? | a genetic structure in a cell that can replicate independently of the chromosomes, typically a small circular DNA strand in the cytoplasm of a bacterium or protozoan. |
| What is bacteropgate/phage? | Bacteriophages, or phages, are viruses that infect bacteria. |
| What is extremophile? | an organism that is tolerant to environmental extremes and that has evolved to grow optimally under one or more of these extreme conditions |
| What is mitochondria? | the “Powerhouse of the cell,” mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) are a double membrane-bound organelle found in most eukaryotic organisms. They are found inside the cytoplasm and essentially function as the cell’s “digestive system.” |
| What is chloroplasts? | organelles found in plant and algal cells that carry out photosynthesis |
| What is primary endosymbiosis ? | process of converting a free-living organism into an organelle is called endosymbiosis (endo- meaning inner) and is also the way eukaryotes evolved mitochondria |
| What is autotroph? | an organism that is able to form nutritional organic substances from simple inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide. |
| What is heterotroph? | an organism deriving its nutritional requirements from complex organic substances. |
| What is mixotroph? | an organism that can use a mix of different sources of energy and carbon, instead of having a single trophic mode on the continuum from complete autotrophy at one end to heterotrophy at the other. |
| What is pseudopodia? | a temporary protrusion of the surface of an amoeboid cell for movement and feeding. |
| What is feeding groove {excavating groove}? | Excavated feeding groove is a characteristic feature of many protist species classified into the supergroup Excavata. |
| What is alveoli? | tiny, balloon-shaped air sacs located at the end of the bronchioles, the branch-like tubes in the lungs. |
| What is alternation of generations? | is a type of life cycle found in terrestrial plants and some algae in which subsequent generations of individuals alternate between haploid and diploid organisms. |
| What is protonema? | thread-like chain of cells that forms the earliest stage of a bryophyte life cycle. |
| What is prothallus {gametophyte of fern}? | gametophyte stage in the life of a fern or other pteridophyte. |
| What is gametophyte? | haploid multicellular organism that produces the gametes (sex cells) in plants and algae. |
| What is gametangia? | an organ or cell in which gametes are produced that is found in many multicellular protists, algae, fungi, and the gametophytes of plants. |
| What is antheridium? | the male sex organ of algae, mosses, ferns, fungi, and other nonflowering plants. |
| What is archegonium? | the female sex organ in mosses, liverworts, ferns, and most conifers. |
| What are gametes? | the cells that carry the potential to create new life by combining with another gamete of the opposite sex. |
| What is sperm? | also called spermatozoon, plural spermatozoa, male reproductive cell, produced by most animals. |
| What is an egg? | animal reproductive body that contains a fertilized ovum. |
| What is sporophyte? | nonsexual phase in the life cycle of plants and certain algae. |
| What is sporangium? | structure within which spores are produced. |
| What is spores? | reproductive cell that can develop into a new individual without fusion with another cell. |
| What is haploid? | is the condition of a cell having a one set of chromosomes.[ |
| What is diploid? | cell or nucleus which contains two copies of genetic material, or a complete set of chromosomes, paired with their homologs1. |
| What is meristem? | region of cells capable of division and growth in plants. |
| What is rhizoids? | a short, thin filament found in fungi and in certain plants and sponges that anchors the growing (vegetative) body of the organism to a substratum |
| What is cuticle? | found in plants provides a covering to the external epidermis of leaves, young shoots, and the other parts of the plant without any periderm. |
| What is stomata? | tiny, kidney, or bean-shaped pores or openings present in the epidermis of the cell. |
| What is meiosis? | the process in eukaryotic, sexually-reproducing animals that reduces the number of chromosomes in a cell before reproduction. |
| What is mitosis? | the step in the cell cycle that the newly duplicated DNA is separated, and two new cells are formed. |
| What is feralization? | when a man’s sperm combines with a woman's egg to form a single cell |
| What is zygote? | cell formed when two gametes fuse during fertilization. |
| What is vascular tissue? | an arrangement of multiple cell types in vascular plants which allows for the transport of water, minerals, and products of photosynthesis to be transported throughout the plant. |
| What is xylem? | a tissue in vascular plants that carries water and dissolved minerals from the roots and provides support for softer tissues. |
| What is phloem? | the vascular tissue in plants that conducts sugars and other metabolic products downward from the leaves. |
| What are true leaves? | the second set of leaves to grow and they resemble the mature plant’s leaf shape on a smaller scale. |
| What are roots? | part of a plant that grows underground. |
| What is lignin? | a carbohydrate and an irregular, phenolic compound that provides structure and support for plant life. |
| What is seed? | A seed is the embryonic stage of the plant life cycle. |
| What is embryo? | the early developmental stage of eukaryotic organisms following the fertilization of an egg (derived from a female) by sperm (derived from a male) as a method of sexual reproduction. |
| What is seed coat? | the protective outer coat of a seed. |
| What is heterospory? | producing two different kinds of spores. |
| What is megaspore? | the larger of the two kinds of spores produced by some ferns. |
| What is microspore? | the smaller of the two kinds of spore produced by some ferns. |
| What is pollen ? | to the powdery product synthesized by seed plants responsible for the production of the male gametes of the plant |
| What is pollination? | the transfer of pollen to a stigma, ovule, flower, or plant to allow fertilization |
| What is Permian extinction? | The Permian extinction, also known as the Great Dying, was a mass extinction event that occurred 252 million years ago at the end of the Permian period. |
| What is cone? | botany, mass of scales or bracts, usually ovate in shape, containing the reproductive organs of certain nonflowering plants |
| What is resin? | solid or highly viscous substance of plant or synthetic origin that is typically convertible into polymers. |
| What is a flower? | the reproductive structure of angiosperms (flowering plants). |
| What is fruit? | a seed-bearing structure formed from the ovaries of only flowering plants. |
| What is stamen? | the male reproductive organ of flowering plant species that produces pollen. |
| What is anther? | the part of a stamen that produces and contains pollen. |
| What is filament? | long chains of proteins. |
| What is petal? | sterile floral part that usually functions as a visually conspicuous element of a flower. |
| What is pistil? | female reproductive part of a flower. |
| What is stigma? | The receptive tip of a carpel or a group of carpels in the female reproductive organ of a flower, modified for the reception of pollen. |
| What is style? | style refers to an elongated part of a carpel, or group of fused carpels, between the ovary and the stigma. |
| What is ovary? | refers to the female reproductive organ in vertebrates that produces the female gametes (eggs/oocytes) and functions as an exocrine gland. |
| What is carpel? | One of the leaflike, seed-bearing structures that constitute the innermost whorl of a flower. |
| What is coevolution? | evolution of at least two species, which occurs in a mutually dependent manner. |
| What is monocot? | one of two groups of flowering plants, or “angiosperms.” |
| What is dicot? | flowering plants that have a pair of leaves, or cotyledons, in the seed embryo. |
| What is fungus? | a kingdom of usually multicellular eukaryotic organisms that are heterotrophs (cannot make their own food) and have important roles in nutrient cycling in an ecosystem. |
| What is hyphae? | long, branching, filamentous structures of a fungus, oomycete, or actinobacterium. |
| What is coenocytic hyphae ? | aseptate, are a structural component of fungi. |
| What is septate hyphae? | hyphae of most fungi that are divided into cells by internal walls called septa. |
| What is fruiting body? | the spore-producing organ of a fungus, often seen as a mushroom or toadstool. |
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